American Creation

This final chapter deals with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which had profound ramifications for the future of the US—both good and bad. When Jefferson came to power in 1801, he envisioned the western part of the continent as the future. The only European power there was Spain, an empire in decline, weak enough that Jefferson assumed it was only a matter of time before the US took over its territory.

This all changed in the first month of Jefferson’s presidency, when American diplomats in Europe caught wind of a rumor that Spain had ceded much of its territory in North America to France. If true, this meant that the strongest, not the weakest, European power sat at America’s doorstep. Jefferson’s minister to France, Robert Livingston, set out to confirm the truth of the rumor. He discovered that a force of 25,000 troops would soon sail to the French colony of Santo Domingo (now Haiti) to put down a rebellion that had broken out the previous decade. They would then fortify New Orleans and the western bank of the Mississippi against the Americans. Jefferson did not panic, predicting that the French would never get out of Santo Domingo.

Shortly afterward, a Spanish official in New Orleans closed the port to American shipping. Many in the US government wanted to prepare for war, but Jefferson patiently bided his time, wanting to forge a diplomatic solution to both situations. He hoped that some higher-up in Spain would reverse the closing, but did send a special envoy, James Monroe, to assist Livingston in France. Livingston made no headway, however, as French minister Talleyrand refused to acknowledge the plan for an invasion force.

Yet such a force set out for Santo Domingo not long after, led by Napoleon’s brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc. They deceived the rebel leader Toussaint L’Ouverture into allowing them to land, only to capture L’Ouverture soon after. Then the plans went awry. Learning that the French planned to re-enslave them, the Santo Domingans successfully defended their island. Between fighting and disease, the French were defeated, and Leclerc died of yellow fever. Jefferson had been right: they never made it to New Orleans.

At this point, Napoleon decided to sell the Louisiana Territory to the Americans, focusing instead on the looming battle with Britain. Monroe had not yet reached Paris, so Livingston agreed to a price of $15 million in early May 1803, a good deal for both sides: “Napoleon got more than he expected and the Americans got an unexpected empire” (221-22). Jefferson, uneasy about his use of executive power in completing the deal, wanted the approval of Congress as the representatives of the people. He drew up a constitutional amendment, only to abandon it when word came that Napoleon was having second thoughts. The Senate easily approved the treaty, and the United States nearly doubled its size overnight.

This acquisition brought up numerous political questions, including the administration of the land. The purchase made the US an empire, in opposition to the spirit of its own founding and republican nature. Congress passed a resolution assigning to the president all responsibility for territory policy. Jefferson wrote its governing constitution, which was anything but republican. He saw it as a vast Indian reservation, and wanted to remove various tribes east of the Mississippi there, selling their lands to pay for the purchase.

Another issue was what role slavery would play in the new territory, as well as who would control this—federal or state governments. Ellis argues that this was the last chance for a gradual emancipation of slaves, yet Jefferson did not even consider the idea. In his mind, blacks and whites could not coexist peacefully, and freed slaves would have to be removed to either the Caribbean or Africa. Otherwise, he feared, talk of emancipation would lead to war and, quite possibly, the destruction of the United States.