Ecocriticism is the literary analysis of “the way human beings relate to the natural environment” (410). It is an aspect of the environmental or green movement that, according to Tyson, began with the publication of Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel Carson, a book that describes the harmful impact of pesticides on the environment. Ecocriticism is a type of Literary Analysis as a Form of Social Justice because it emphasizes the importance of protecting the natural world.

Ecocritics describe the present era as “the Anthropocene epoch,” a reference to the extent to which humans have shaped and destroyed the natural environment. Human environmental destruction and industrial activities have caused the “greenhouse effect” that has resulted in rising sea waters, more intense natural disasters, increased animal-to-human transmission of disease, and more. The environmental movement promotes sustainable practices in an attempt to repair and reduce damage and ensure that the planet remains habitable. However, many of these attempts have failed or been thwarted by monied interests, like oil lobbies and elite lifestyle preferences like private jets. 

In contrast to this “shallow environmentalism,” alternative “radical environmentalist” movements, like deep ecology, eco-Marxism, and ecofeminism, advocate wholesale changes to the political economy to address the ongoing crisis.

Deep Ecology

Deep ecology is “an approach to the natural environment and our place within it that emphasizes harmony with, and protection of, the natural world” (413). The term was coined by philosopher Arne Naess as part of his work on ecophilosophy, or ecosophy. Naess’s deep ecological principles as summarized by Tyson are as follows:

1. Inherent value: All life, human or not, has value.

2. Biodiversity: This is a key aspect to a healthy ecosystem.

3. Vital needs: Humans should only “reduce biodiversity” to fulfill essential needs for food, heat, etc.

4. Human population: A reduction in human population is needed to protect biodiversity.

5. Human interference: Human interference in biodiversity through practices like monocropping is harmful.

6. Policy change: The current economic system generates growth through policies that harm the environment.

7. Quality of life: Quality of life should be measured through ecological health rather than through ownership of consumer goods.

8. Our obligation: Those who agree with the principles of deep ecology have a duty to realize its goals.

Naess proposes several methods to achieve the goals of deep ecology, including reducing consumerism, nonviolent action, vegetarianism, and engaging in sustainable farming practices. Tyson then describes several methods for reducing human overpopulation, such as birth control and family planning education.

Eco-Marxism

Marxism critiques the capitalist values of competition, rugged individualism, consumerism, and commodification. Marxists argue that “capitalism should be replaced with an economically egalitarian society” (419). Eco-Marxists particularly focus on how capitalism degrades the environment, arguing that it must be abolished to halt the destruction of the Earth. 

Karl Marx termed the depletion of Earth’s resources under capitalism “metabolic rift” and predicted that it would cause a crisis, which indeed it has. Tyson argues that “capitalism is largely responsible for our failure to respond adequately to the environmental crisis it created” because big business, through political lobbying, blocks attempts at environmental policy and implementation of renewable energy sources (420). She feels, however, that it is too late to overthrow capitalism and therefore argues that solutions must be sought within the current system to address the crisis.

Ecofeminism

Ecocritics argue that “our ideas about nature are too often a product of our fears and desires rather than a response to reality” (422). Ecofeminists argue that “Anglo-European patriarchal culture” treats nature the way it treats women, as a beautiful object there to serve their needs (423). They term this view “androcentric,” meaning that it places the patriarchal view at the heart of its understanding of nature. Ecofeminists link the treatment of nature under the patriarchy to the treatment of women. They advocate for a more egalitarian society that seeks to “collaborate with nature rather than control it” (423). Tyson describes patriarchal thinking as essentialist (i.e., assumes inborn characteristics), dualistic, and hierarchical.

Tyson describes three types of ecofeminism:

1. Radical ecofeminism: Popular in the 1970s and 1980s, radical ecofeminists believe that femininity is essentially aligned with nature, the body, and emotionality and is therefore superior to masculinity.

2. Marxist ecofeminism: Marxist ecofeminists critique capitalism generally and its links to patriarchal ideology specifically. For instance, they critique the capitalist value of rugged individualism as promoting patriarchal displays of domination (of women, the environment, etc.).

3. Vegetarian ecofeminism: Vegetarian ecofeminists focus on animal rights and fighting speciesism (the view that humans are superior to other species), which they see as connected to “other oppressive ideologies” (427). Tyson describes many of the negative aspects of meat consumption, such as the impacts of the factory farming of dairy cows on the animals and environment.

Tyson notes that women-led environmental activist movements have had some success, like the Indian Chipko Movement in 1973 where women took up a vigil to protect trees from deforestation.

Postcolonial Ecocriticism and Environmental Justice

Postcolonial literary ecocriticism analyzes the relationship between postcolonial populations and the environment in literary works—for example, representations of how Indigenous peoples steward land and its resources or how the natural environment relates to Indigenous identities. This approach is characterized by environmental justice, a movement that addresses how marginalized populations, including women, suffer from environmental degradation. Tyson gives an example from a report by Balgis Osman-Elasha that describes how women-run, small-scale farms in Asia and Africa suffer from water contamination, deforestation, and gender discrimination. 

Another element of the environmental justice movement is the focus on environmental racism, which causes communities of color to disproportionately suffer the effects of pollution, as seen, for example, in oil pipelines built on Indigenous lands or the environmental degradation caused by the development of tourist facilities in poor countries.

Ecocriticism and Literature

Nature has historically been an important theme, genre, and setting for literary works. Ecocritical analysis of literature specifically analyzes literary representations of the relationship between humans and the natural environment. The primary mode of analysis is whether a work is anthropocentric (human centered) or ecocentric (environment centered). 

For instance, Greg Garrard argues that William Wordsworth’s poems about nature are anthropocentric because they focus on how humans feel about nature. In contrast, he argues that John Clare’s poems are ecocentric because Clare focuses on the specific details of the natural environment, like species of birds. Tyson argues that if a work is anthropocentric, analysis should focus on the “ideological biases driving its anthropocentrism” (439), such as humanism.

Tyson provides an example of an ecocritical analysis of Kate Chopin’s The Awakening (1899). She notes that the natural setting is used symbolically rather than as a representation of the real environment and that the character of Léonce, a businessman, treats the environment as a resource to be exploited in a way that is analogous to how he treats women. These aspects both suggest that the work is anthropocentric.

Some Questions Ecocritics Ask About Literary Texts

Tyson provides a series of questions that summarize ecocritical approaches to literature, highlighting how its representation of nature reveals the work’s ideology (442-43):

1. How is nature depicted in the work?

2. How do the characters relate to nature?

3. Does the work portray nature as vulnerable due to human interference?

4. Does the work have a capitalistic relationship to nature?

5. Are the characters’ relationships to nature patriarchal?

6. Does the work’s representation of nature have a connection to race, class, national, or cultural identity?

“…the Real Snow, Our Snow…”: An Ecocritical Reading of The Great Gatsby

In her ecocritical reading of The Great Gatsby, Tyson analyzes the narrative’s focus on “human ingenuity” and “its virtual elimination of nature as an entity in its own right” (443). She describes the novel’s “green unconscious,” or the way in which the narrative attempts to compensate for the lack of nature with “mechanized, domesticated setting[s]” (443).

Tyson opens her essay with a historical description of the proliferation of mass-produced household consumer electronics from 1900 and the advancement in building technologies that created a new Manhattan skyline in the 1920s. The Great Gatsby takes place amid this “landscape” of modern technology. Tyson gives specific examples of the “period’s fascination with modern technology” (445), such as the electric juicer, electric lighting, the car, and modern architecture. She argues that the novel emphasizes American consumerism and advertising, as seen in references to roadside billboards, for example. Thus, the novel is anthropocentric. To the extent that the natural world is described, it is only in reference to the human experience of it, as when Nick reflects on “our snow” that he saw from a train going through Wisconsin.

Tyson notes that, as if to compensate for the lack of nature, the narrative “injects” artificial natural elements throughout. For example, many characters are described using animal, plant, or insect metaphors. Gatsby’s party guests have animal surnames like “Civet” and “Beluga.” Tyson concludes that the novel presents a “tipping point” where fascination with technology replaced fascination with nature but that the “green unconscious” of the novel leads the displaced natural elements to unconsciously resurface in the characterizations mentioned as a remedy.

Questions for Further Practice: Ecocritical Approaches to Other Literary Works

Tyson provides model questions to guide ecocritical literary analysis. These questions explore how ecocritical concepts, such as ecocentrism, can deepen a reader’s understanding of texts. Topics include the following (453-54):

1. Ecocentrism in the poems “Endangered” by Régis Bonvicino and “The Eye of the Whale” by Homero Aridjis

2. Responses to climate change as depicted in The Contingency Plan by Steve Waters

3. The relationship between the Māori, the land, and property developers in Potiki by Patricia Grace, particularly regarding its depiction of the legacy of colonialism

4. The portrayal of different class understandings of nature in The House of Mirth by Edith Wharton

5. Environmental justice as portrayed in The Parable of the Sower by Octavia Butler