An American political scientist who developed the theory of retrospective voting, arguing that voters evaluate politicians based on past performance.

An economist and political theorist who defined democracy as a competitive struggle among elites for the votes of the people.

An influential journalist-politician who argued that citizens' perceptions of politics are often based on simplified mental images.

A political scientist whose work highlighted that many citizens lack coherent ideological belief systems and rely on loosely related attitudes.

Leading researchers in democratic theory and voting behavior who critique preference-based and retrospective models, focusing on identity and social contexts.

A businessperson and politician whose 2016 campaign is used as an example of identity-based voting and party affiliation.

The 32nd president of the United States, used as a case study for showing that electoral success may be tied to recent economic circumstances rather than policy support.