Discourses and Selected Writings

“Consider at what price you sell your integrity; but please, for God’s sake, don’t sell it cheap. The grand gesture, the ultimate sacrifice—that, perhaps, belongs to others, to people of Socrates’ class.”

The applied philosophy of Epictetus is based on the concept of Freedom Through Self-Discipline and Reason. It is a matter of “training” (22), which can be a perpetual process. This passage is the first of several hints that Epictetus believes that very few people should expect to ever truly reach the Stoic ideal achieved by Socrates and Diogenes, but that it is important to nevertheless try.

“What is the goal of virtue, after all, except a life that flows smoothly?”

The ultimate goal of Stoicism is achieving tranquility, which is seen as equivalent to happiness. Teaching people how to achieve such happiness was the goal of most of the major philosophical schools of antiquity, including Epicureanism and Cynicism. For Epictetus, such virtue is the result of Freedom Through Self-Discipline and Reason.

“And yet God has not merely given us strength to tolerate troubles without being humiliated or undone, but, as befitted a king and true father, he has given them to us free from constraint, compulsion and impediment.”

While Epictetus’s interpretation of Stoic philosophy emphasizes Philosophy as Daily Practice Rather Than Theory, there are a number of propositions that he views as essential to his philosophy. One of these is the existence of God or the gods, their benevolence, and their active intervention in the world. This explains why, despite Epictetus’s occasional disdain for abstract thought in philosophy, he still emphasizes the importance of logic because logic is important to defend and maintain such fundamental principles.

“So why not call ourselves citizens of the world and children of God? And why should we fear any human contingency?”

The idea of the “citizen of the world” is one that Socrates applied to himself (24). Much like how philosophers like Socrates and Epictetus urged people to have a more detached relationship with material possessions, the concept of “citizen of the world” also meant becoming less attached to one’s nation.

“The upshot is that it is not anti-social to be constantly acting in one own’s self-interest.”

Epictetus views humans as “social creatures” (55) but he also argues every being, even the gods, act in their own self-interest. However, Epictetus also argues that the self-interested goal of every being to achieve their full potential requires them to act in social and altruistic ways, not to be “anti-social.”

“When someone is properly grounded in life, they shouldn’t have to look outside themselves for approval.”

Cultivating indifference to external circumstances and factors is the core of Epictetus’s applied philosophy. By “properly grounded,” Epictetus means acting in accordance with natural law, which necessitates steering one’s thoughts and emotions toward the good and recognizing The Distinction Between What We Control and Do Not Control.

“No one has power over our principles, and what other people do control we don’t care about.”

Maintaining The Distinction Between What We Control and Do Not Control requires understanding that our character and our emotions are our own. One of the more radical aspects of Stoicism is that it takes the need for this distinction to the point that it encourages emotional self-control and indifference in the face of even the physical, social, and economic forms of coercion that people often face.

“Those are the genuine human tragedies, the city’s siege and capture—when right judgements are subverted; when thoughts are undermined.”

When Epictetus describes “right judgments,” he is speaking in terms of natural law and reason, which are almost synonymous in his philosophy. Right or correct judgments are those that are aligned to what he considers the universal, natural law. Wrong judgments are those driven off-course by the intervention of an external.

“Choose to be either free or a slave, enlightened or a fool, a thoroughbred or a nag. Either resign yourself to a life of abuse till you die, or escape it immediately.”

Despite what Epictetus says here, being “free” does not mean being free from all authority. Instead, Epictetus views true freedom as something interior, a freedom from fear, anxiety, and despair regardless of the circumstances, emphasizing Freedom Through Self-Discipline and Reason.

“It isn’t easy to combine and reconcile the two—the carefulness of a person devoted to externals and the dignity of one who’s detached—but it’s not impossible. Otherwise happiness would be impossible.”

Unlike Cynicism, Stoicism did not discourage adherents from pursuing politics, a career, or creative endeavors or holding wealth. Epictetus’s own Stoic student, Arrian, was an accomplished magistrate, general, and writer. As Epictetus suggests here, overcoming desire for social and political achievements and material gains is not the same as avoiding those things altogether. Instead, a Stoic should use them well and not become too attached to them.

“Now, what does the title ‘citizen’ mean? In this role, a person never acts in his own interest or thinks of himself alone, but, like a hand or foot that had sense and realized its place in the natural order, all its actions and desires aim at nothing except contributing to the common good.”

An important aspect of Stoicism is the balance between sociability and self-interest. As in this passage, the two are not seen as contradictory, but complementary. Through self-interest, especially by adopting and seeking fulfillment in the role and purpose assigned to an individual by God, one contributes to the community.

“If your present desires are realistic—realistic for you personally—why are you frustrated and unhappy? If you are not trying to escape the inevitable, then why do you continue to meet with accident and misfortune? Why do you get what you do not want, and don’t get what you do?”

Desire is one important concept in Epictetus’s philosophy. One’s desire has to be understood in terms of natural law and one’s role as dictated by that law in order to be “realistic.”

“If, for instance, somebody were to deny that there is anything universally true, obviously he would have to make a statement to that effect: ‘Nothing is universally true.’”

Although Epictetus does not name the specific philosophical school, passages like these are likely a reference to Pyrrhoism, a rival school of philosophy that practiced a form of skepticism and moral relativism. One reason Epictetus rejects Pyrrhoism is its skeptical and agnostic attitude toward the gods. This passage is also an example of why Epictetus considers logic and reason to be important, since it is useful in countering such statements and arguments from opposing philosophers like the Pyrrhoists.

“When I say this to some people, they imagine that I am denouncing rhetoric, or care in the presentation of principles. But I’m not one of those who denounce it, only the obsessive devotion to it, and making it the focus of one’s hopes and expectations.”

Despite his occasional skepticism toward abstract thought, logic and reason do play an important role in Epictetus’ philosophy. More than abstract arguments themselves, Epictetus is more opposed to the concept of rhetoric for its own sake, even if he does admit that some rhetoric is needed to “solicit an audience” (172).

“I have a bad neighbour—bad, that is, for himself. For me, though, he is good: he exercises my powers of fairness and sociability.”

One question that Epictetus does not explicitly address in his philosophy is why bad things happen if the gods are fundamentally benevolent. This passage implies Epictetus’s answer is that poor circumstances provides us with an opportunity to improve our characters.

“Free is the person who lives as he wishes and cannot be coerced, impeded or compelled, whose impulses cannot be thwarted, who always gets what he desires and never has to experience what he would rather avoid.”

Freedom Through Self-Discipline and Reason means that freedom does not mean freedom from external constraints and annoyances. Instead, it means freedom from the self, specifically our own fears and anxieties. Of course, like all internal struggles, it is a difficult and perpetual process.

“Instead the opinions of men as to what is bad diverge.”

In Epictetus’s idea of natural law, the good is connected with natural law, as interpreted through reason. The fact that what’s bad is instead subjective supports Epictetus’s claim that the good is universal and objective.

“Start with things that are least valuable and most liable to be lost—things such as a jug or a glass—and proceed to apply the same ideas to clothes, pets, livestock, property; then to yourself, your body, the body’s parts, your children, your siblings and your wife. Look on every side and mentally discard them.”

Epictetus’s words are a clear example of Philosophy as Daily Practice Rather Than Theory. This may seem similar to the detachment from material things presented in Cynicism and other philosophies. However, Epictetus is not urging complete detachment, only that one mentally prepare oneself for loss.

“Guard what is good for you always; make wise use of material things for as long as they are granted you to enjoy, and be content with virtue exclusively.”

The main purpose of following Epictetus’s mental and moral regimen is to achieve tranquility. However, it is important to keep Epictetus believes that tranquility, happiness, and virtue are all one in the same, achieved by following the same path, reflecting Freedom Through Self-Discipline and Reason.

“What do I care whether matter is made up of atoms, indivisibles, or fire and earth? Isn’t it enough to know the nature of good and evil, the limits of desire and aversion, and of choice and refusal, and to use these as virtual guidelines for how to live?”

Some aspects of abstract reasoning are accepted by Epictetus, such as the use of syllogisms to defend the fundamental premises of his philosophy (23). Still, Epictetus dismisses philosophical debates concerning topics like the creation and nature of the universe, subjects that were largely of interest to the Greek philosophers predating Socrates. Part of this is because Epictetus is more interested in Philosophy as Daily Practice Rather Than Theory, but another reason is that such arguments challenge the theoretical underpinnings of Epictetus’s philosophy on the gods and their relationship to humanity.

“According to Favorinus, Epictetus would also say that there were two vices much blacker and more serious than the rest: lack of persistence and lack of self-control.”

Epictetus views morality as first and foremost an interior process, which then influences an individual’s external actions. This is why Epictetus would consider lack of persistence and lack of self-control to be such serious personal flaws. Failure to control one’s emotions or commit to a regiment of moderation and restraint leads to destructive actions, which in turn is “the genesis of wars, factions and seditions” (54).

“People with a strong physical constitution can tolerate extremes of hot and cold; people of strong mental health can handle anger, grief, joy and the other emotions.”

All throughout his surviving words, Epictetus emphasizes his comparison between the mental training of a Stoic and the physical training of an athlete (e.g.,14). Just as people gain a strong body through constant physical training, training as a Stoic also requires rigorous and constant mental training. It is also a lifelong process, at least for all but exceptional people.

“Whenever planning an action, mentally rehearse what the plan entails. If you are heading out to bathe, picture to yourself the typical scene at the bathhouse—-people splashing, pushing, yelling and pinching your clothes.”

This passage is another example of offering extremely practical advice as part of Philosophy as Daily Practice Rather Than Theory. This also illustrates how Epictetus can be compared more to a modern therapist than a modern concept of a philosopher.