Escape From Freedom

As the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud is a key figure throughout Escape from Freedom. Born in 1856, Freud originally trained to be a doctor, focusing on treating individuals with mental disorders. He developed the treatment method of psychoanalytic therapy, which focused on having a patient freely discuss their thought patterns, which are then analyzed by the therapist. Through his practice as a psychoanalyst, Freud developed theories about the workings of the brain. He published these theories in a number of influential books, such as The Interpretation of Dreams and Civilization and Its Discontents.

Fromm’s own analysis of society largely departs from several of Freud’s ideas. Particularly important for Fromm is Freud’s idea that individuals are governed by unconscious emotions, which lays the groundwork for Fromm to argue that human societies are driven less by rational thinking than they are by emotion and character structures. However, Fromm differs from Freud in several key ways. Freud believes that within each individual there exists a number of biologically instinctual drives, which are universal for all human beings regardless of their societal context. In Fromm’s view, an individual’s personality is largely a response to the needs or demands of the society they live in. Fromm emphasizes the ways in which a society’s economic structure influences the character structure of individuals within a society. However, Fromm also believes that there are some elements of human nature that are not socially constructed. As such, Fromm argues that human nature and society are in a reciprocal relationship with each other, each influencing the other’s development. 

Luther was a religious leader living in Germany in the 16th century, where he played a fundamental role in the Reformation, a religious movement that sought to question the authority of the Catholic Church. Though originally a Catholic priest, Luther published an influential written critique of the Catholic Church’s practices in 1517, known as the Ninety-Five Theses. Luther’s criticisms of the Catholic Church especially targeted the Church’s practice of selling indulgences, which essentially allowed Catholics to purchase a guaranteed entry to Heaven. Luther’s religious teachings eventually lead to the development of the Protestant sect of Lutheranism.

Fromm discusses Luther’s teachings in Chapter 3, which focuses on the character structure of Protestantism and the Reformation. Fromm argues that Luther’s religious teachings respond to the crisis of individuality that occurs alongside the spread of capitalism. Luther’s teachings can be seen as offering a positive notion of freedom, as Luther emphasizes that the individual can have a personal relationship to God. However, Luther also teaches that an individual should relinquish their own freedoms and focus on submitting themselves to God’s will. Fromm argues that Lutheranism’s emphasis on self-abasement, and the insignificance of the individual, is an important precursor to the development of authoritarian thinking in the 20th century.

Calvin is a French religious leader in the 16th century who played a major role in the Protestant Reformation. Calvin’s teachings led to the growth of the religious sect of Calvinism. Fromm sees Calvin as occupying a similar historical role to Luther, discussing in Chapter 3 how Calvin’s teachings helped to further capitalist growth and development in the Middle Ages. Calvin preached the essential “nothingness of the individual” (103), arguing that individuals must humiliate themselves and totally submit to the power of God. Calvin differs from Luther in his concept of pre-destination, which argues that God has arbitrarily pre-determined who will achieve salvation. Calvinism thus teaches that one’s actions during life have no effect on whether one will go to heaven or hell in the afterlife. However, Calvinists seek to devote themselves completely to their religious practice, believing that their relentless religious activity can prove that they have been chosen by God for salvation. Fromm believes that the Calvinist emphasis on work and activity as a virtue leads to people tirelessly working under capitalism.