Humankind: A Hopeful History

“So what is this radical idea? That most people, deep down, are decent.”

This quote underscores the theme of the Innate Goodness of Humans. The use of the word “radical” serves as a rhetorical device, emphasizing the irony that something so basic and intuitive about human nature is considered revolutionary. This statement sets the stage for a critique of societal norms and ideologies that often paint a less flattering picture of humanity.

“Catastrophes bring out the best in people. I know of no other sociological finding that’s backed by so much solid evidence that’s so blithely ignored.”

The tension between something having empirical “solid evidence” while nonetheless being “blithely ignored” serves as a form of dramatic irony, revealing a disconnect between societal perception and scientific data. This observation emphasizes the gulf between commonly held beliefs and what is scientifically supported about human nature.

“Dictators and despots, governors and generals—they all too often resort to brute force to prevent scenarios that exist only in their own heads, on the assumption that the average Joe is ruled by self-interest, just like them.”

The parallel structure of “dictators and despots, governors and generals” groups these authoritative figures together, highlighting their shared propensity for exercising “brute force” based on misguided assumptions. The quote criticizes this universal failing among leaders, suggesting a projection of their own traits onto the general populace.

“In Lord of the Flies, William Golding intimated the latter [that humans are inherently savage] and scored an instant hit. So much so, argued the influential critic Lionel Trilling, that the novel ‘Marked a mutation in culture.’”

This quote highlights the profound cultural impact of Lord of the Flies. Beyond influencing literature, the novel has long served as a lens through which society views human nature. This observation sets the stage for Bregman to present his own evidence and perspective as he questions this deeply ingrained viewpoint.

“Pain, suffering and struggle are merely the engines of evolution. Can you blame Darwin for putting off publishing his theory for years? Writing to a friend, he said it was ‘like confessing a murder.’”

This quote touches on the darker aspects of evolution, emphasizing that human existence and the existence of all living things come at a significant cost in terms of suffering. It also underscores the moral dilemma faced by Darwin in presenting his revolutionary theory.

“For tens of thousands of years we had efficient ways of taking down anyone who put on airs. Humour. Mockery. Gossip. And if that didn’t work, an arrow in the backside.”

This quote explores the ancient checks and balances employed by early societies to maintain equality. The list of methods—humor, mockery, gossip, and physical harm—is paced to show an escalation, using the literary device of anaphora to stress that each one was a tool in the arsenal against unchecked power. The humor in the phrase “an arrow in the backside” adds levity but also emphasizes how seriously early societies took the prevention of individual tyranny. It contrasts sharply with modern social structures, where power imbalances are often codified and accepted, provoking readers to think critically about The Impact of Societal Structures on Human Behavior.

“How had this small society managed to make and move these monoliths? They lived on an island devoid of trees and didn’t have the wheel at their disposal, much less cranes.”

This rhetorical question serves as a narrative hook, pulling the reader into the heart of the mystery. It also underscores the tension between technological limitations and human innovation, a recurring idea throughout the chapter. The rhetorical question adds an element of intrigue and fuels the reader’s desire to know more.

“In the decades since the [the Stanford Prison] experiment, millions of people have fallen for Philip Zimbardo’s staged farce.”

This quote highlights the far-reaching impact of the Stanford Prison Experiment, describing it as a “staged farce.” The implication is that ethical concerns and scientific flaws are both at work. This critique brings into focus the role of authority and trust in disseminating scientific knowledge, raising questions about the verification and scrutiny these high-profile studies receive before becoming part of academic and public discourse.

“The real shock came after the experiment: 65 per cent of the study participants had continued right up to the furthest extreme and administered the full 450 volts. Apparently, two-thirds of those ordinary dads, pals and husbands were willing to electrocute a random stranger.”

This quote encapsulates the core finding of Milgram’s infamous experiment, demonstrating the terrifying extent to which people will obey authority—even when it involves causing extreme harm to another person. The use of the word “shock” serves both as a literal description of the experiment and as a metaphor for the startling revelation about human obedience. The percentage “65%” is particularly striking, undermining conventional wisdom about individual morality and collective conscience.

“Milgram could draw only one conclusion: human nature comes with a fatal flaw programmed in—a defect that makes us act like obedient puppies and do the most appalling things.”

This quote examines Milgram’s interpretation of his findings, suggesting that the capacity for mindless obedience is a “fatal flaw” inherent in human nature. Phrases like “fatal flaw” and “appalling things” have emotional undertones that amplify the ethical questions raised by Milgram’s experiment. The comparison to “obedient puppies” dehumanizes the participants, implicating not just the individuals involved but humanity as a whole.

“What happened next? When a trial subject thought that they alone heard the cries for help, they rushed out into the corridor. All of them, without exception, ran to intervene. But among those who were led to believe five other students were sitting in rooms nearby, only 62 per cent took action.”

This quote explores the workings of human psychology by describing an experiment related to the bystander effect. It highlights how individual reactions can change dramatically depending on whether people think others are also in a position to help. The numerical data “62 per cent” provides empirical weight to the narrative, making it more than just a sad story but a point for scientific discussion. The quote serves as an incisive commentary on social behavior, challenging the assumptions about collective action and the human condition.

“Some truths are almost too painful to accept. How could it be that those monsters [German soldiers in WWII] were also motivated by the good in humanity—that they, too, were fueled by courage and loyalty, devotion and solidarity?”

This quote confronts the reader with a moral and psychological paradox. It challenges the simplified dichotomy of good vs. evil by acknowledging that so-called “monsters” can also be motivated by universally cherished values like “courage,” “loyalty,” and “solidarity.” The use of rhetorical questions deepens the sense of ethical complexity and internal conflict. Bregman thereby engages with the notion of cognitive dissonance, where holding two contradictory beliefs creates a discomfort that invites deeper introspection and a more nuanced understanding.

“Camaraderie is the weapon that wins wars.”

This line encapsulates the power of interpersonal relationships in shaping historical outcomes. In stark contrast to ideologies and advanced weaponry, it is camaraderie that is the ultimate “weapon.” The statement engages with paradox and irony, recasting values and tools often portrayed as “soft” or “emotional” as tactical assets. This shift forces the reader to reassess not only historical narratives but also the underlying assumptions about what constitutes strength and power.

“If you want power, he wrote, you have to grab it. You must be shameless, unfettered by principles or morals. The ends justify the means.”

This quote encapsulates the essence of Machiavelli’s philosophy on power, which is often considered amoral or ruthless. The writer employs a direct, forceful tone, emphasizing the necessity for decisive action and moral flexibility in the pursuit of power. The phrase “the ends justify the means” is an example of teleological ethics, which measures the morality of an action by its outcome rather than its inherent nature. This ethical stance is often contrasted with deontological ethics, which considers actions morally obligatory, forbidden, or permitted irrespective of their outcomes.

“The individuals who rise to positions of power, Keltner found, are the friendliest and the most empathic. It’s survival of the friendliest.”

This quote serves as a counterpoint to Machiavellian ideas, presenting an alternative philosophy based on research conducted by Professor Dacher Keltner. The juxtaposition of “friendliest and most empathic” with Machiavelli’s shameless and deceptive characteristics introduces a moral tension between different pathways to power. The phrase “survival of the friendliest” inverts the well-known concept of “survival of the fittest,” suggesting that social dynamics in fact evolved to value cooperation over competition.

“Disasters bring out the best in us. It’s as if they flip a collective reset switch and we revert to our better selves.”

This quote encapsulates the idea of human solidarity under duress, challenging the traditional Enlightenment view that humans are essentially selfish. It touches on literary devices like metaphor with the “collective reset switch,” implying a communal reevaluation and return to innate goodness when faced with calamity. This paradox—that calamities can reveal the best in human nature—invites the reader to reevaluate preconceived notions of how society operates under stress.

“How you get paid for what you do can turn you into an entirely different person.”

This quote weighs in on the psychological impacts of financial incentives. It probes the idea that the structure of a person’s compensation—whether they are salaried, paid by the hour, or earn through commissions—cannot just affect their performance but also their identity and values. The line employs a straightforward style to convey a complex truth, inviting readers to reconsider their own work arrangements and how they might be shaping them as individuals.

“Over the past decades, the intrinsic motivation of children has been systematically stifled.”

This quote speaks to a growing concern in educational paradigms: the stifling of children’s intrinsic motivation. It points to a larger systemic issue, where structured activities and standardized testing overwhelm children, leaving little room for individual exploration and play. This quote employs the literary device of hyperbole (“systematically stifled”) to emphasize the pervasive extent to which this occurs.

“How can we restore trust in politics? How can we stem the tide of cynicism in society? And how can we save our democracy?”

This series of rhetorical questions serve as a focal point for the chapter. They epitomize the universal crises affecting democracies worldwide and act as a lens through which the rest of the chapter can be interpreted. The literary device of rhetorical questioning is employed here to prompt engagement from the reader, encouraging reconsideration of these fundamental questions throughout the narrative.

“‘It’s really very simple,’ explains Bastøy’s warden, Tom Eberhardt. ‘Treat people like dirt, and they’ll be dirt. Treat them like human beings, and they’ll act like human beings.’”

This quote encapsulates the philosophy behind Norway’s prison system and serves as an argument for treating inmates with dignity and respect. The literary device of antithesis (“dirt” vs. “human beings”) provides a stark contrast that highlights the impact of the environment and treatment on an individual’s behavior. It also taps into the deeper psychological and sociological concept of self-fulfilling prophecy, suggesting that people will rise or fall according to the expectations set for them.

“If we can turn the other cheek with criminals and would-be terrorists, then maybe we can apply the same strategy on a larger scale. Maybe we can bring together sworn enemies and even stamp out racism and hatred.”

This quote introduces the main idea of the chapter: the transformative power of empathy and understanding. The quote also employs the Biblical metaphor of “turning the other cheek,” which serves to underline the universality and ancient wisdom behind the concept of forgiveness and reconciliation. It questions the traditional methods of handling criminals and suggests an alternative, rooted in empathy, which has broader applications even on societal issues like racism and hatred.

“But even in those desperate years, when the whole of Europe was in the grip of darkness, there was one small but radiant ray of light. In December 1914, the heavens briefly opened, giving thousands a glimpse of a different world. For a moment, they realized they were all in this together. As brothers. As humans.”

This quote encapsulates the dichotomy of despair and hope, referring to the World War I Christmas Truce of 1914. It is rich in metaphorical language. Europe is “in the grip of darkness,” contrasting with “radiant ray of light,” symbolizing hope amid bleakness. The phrase “the heavens briefly opened” carries religious undertones, suggesting a divine moment of clarity and unity. This quote incorporates key literary elements like contrast and metaphor to convey the profound emotional and psychological impact of the moment, underscoring the universal human yearning for peace and understanding even in the throes of war.

“‘Just you think,’ [British Rifleman] Oswald Tilley exclaimed to his parents in a letter, ‘that while you were eating your turkey etc., I was out talking and shaking hands with the very men I had been trying to kill a few hours before!! It was astounding!’”

This quote employs irony to emphasize the surreal nature of the situation. The fact that soldiers were socializing with the same men they were trying to kill just a few hours before highlights the absurdity and futility of war. The exclamatory tone captures the soldier’s astonishment, serving as a rhetorical device that allows readers to emotionally engage with the narrative. The quote serves as a microcosm of the larger themes in the chapter, revealing how deeply the events of the truce affected individual soldiers.