Leo Africanus

In this and following chapters, Hasan draws on first-hand accounts given to him by his mother, Salma, and his father, a weigh-master named Muhammad, to recount the circumstances surrounding his birth. Hasan is born in Granada during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. He is the first-born—and, it would turn out, only—son of Muhammad. At the time of his birth, Granada has been weakened by both civil war and the threat of invasion by the Christian Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Aragon.

Muhammad is delighted by Hasan’s birth, but so is Salma. She has a rival, Muhammad’s concubine Warda, who was a Christian captured during a raid on a village. Muhammad fell in love with Warda, while Muhammad and Salma are cousins whose marriage was arranged when they were children. However, Salma loves Muhammad and is devastated by his infatuation with Warda.

Salma comes to rely on a Jewish fortune teller called Gaudy Sarah. At the same time Salma is pregnant, Warda becomes pregnant, and the two women are nervous that one will give Muhammad his first-born son and heir and not the other. Late in their pregnancy, Muhammad selfishly forces the two women to show themselves off to his friends in public, leaving them exhausted. Gaudy Sarah tells Salma that because she has become ugly, she will give birth to a boy, while Warda, because she is still fair, will have a girl. She also advises Salma not to allow Muhammad near the women while they give birth. Muhammad is furious and bans Gaudy Sarah from the house when Salma tells him this. Nonetheless, he follows Sarah’s advice. Salma safely gives birth to Hasan, and Warda has a daughter, Mariam. Hasan is circumcised by a barber named Hamza, and a grand feast with musicians and poets celebrates the births.

One of the guests is Salma’s brother, Abu Marwan, also known as Khali, who works as a letter writer in the court of the Sultan. He recalls when he and Salma experienced the Great Parade as children. It was a weeks-long event hosted by the Sultan of Granada at the time, Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali. At the height of the Parade, a devastating storm hit the city, causing a flood that killed many. Salma believed the storm was punishment for the cruelty of the Sultan, who (like Muhammad) favored a slave woman who was originally a Rumiyya (Christian) over his own wife. However, the Sultan only became more corrupt and dedicated to his own luxury. To counter accusations of being too influenced by his Rumiyya wife, the Sultan started a war with Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon. A civil war broke out between Abu’l Hasan ‘Ali and his son Boabdil. Khali then predicts that Granada will fall and that the family will have to leave for another country.

In a recollection by Khali, the Sultan’s courtiers are split between those who want peace with Castile and Aragon and those who continue the war. Hearing a story about Yahya, an amir who is defending the city of Basta from the forces of King Ferdinand, Khali realizes that Yahya had secretly defected to the enemy. Thanks to Yahya, Khali notes in his story, all that is left of the country of Granada is the capital city itself and the surrounding land. Khali delivers the news to the Sultan and is disturbed when the monarch grins; rather than being disturbed by the massive loss of territory, he is delighted that he no longer has to worry about Yahya, who is a potential rival to the throne. This reaction sparks Khali’s decision to leave Granada for the Maghreb.

Tensions rise in Granada as people cling to desperate rumors that Egypt or the Ottoman Turks will come to Granada’s aid. A religious leader, Astaghfirullah, urges the Granadans to repent of their luxuries and immodesty. Previously a subject of ridicule, Astaghfirullah becomes respected and influential. Certain books celebrating pleasure or about forbidden topics like astrology are hidden or burned, and the prostitutes leave the city.

Astaghfirullah is opposed by a doctor named Abu Amr, who changed his name to “Father of Wine,” Abu Khamr. Abu Amr is dedicated to the Islamic tradition of intellectual inquiry, which men like Astaghfirullah have attacked. Abu Khamr and his supporters manage to capture one of the enemy’s cannons, but he is unable to fire it without artillery. Despite this, Abu Khamr argues that the kingdoms of Islam need technology, not faith or martyrdom, to fight off invasion by the Christian powers.

The city of Granada is under siege by the combined forces of Aragon and Castile. Even though as a weigh-master Muhammad is charged with helping maintain public order, he briefly joins in with a mob of prominent people denouncing the Sultan. Muhammad and other prominent men of the kingdom go to the Sultan’s court to debate over what should be done. The vizier Al-Mulih urges surrender so that the people can either receive a safe conduct out of the city or be allowed to keep their property if they stay. Astaghfirullah counters that surrender would be impious. Even Abu Khmer argues against surrender. However, the majority come out in favor of it.

Gaudy Sarah visits Salma and Muhammad and shows them a prophetic book written by a rabbi prophesying a “flood of blood and fire” and that the Jews will no longer be able to stay in Granada (50). Further, she recounts that her nephew in Toledo was burned alive on false charges of killing a child and warns Salma that, after the Jews, the Castilians will persecute the Muslims.

The Castilians enter the city. With his family, Hasan personally witnesses Sultan Boabdil embrace King Ferdinand. Later, Boabdil goes into exile with his wealth while Yahya and the Sultan’s mother and siblings convert to Christianity and become nobles ruling over Granada in the name of Castile. At first, life under Castilian occupation changes little, with Muhammad resuming his duties as weigh-master. However, it is announced that all Jews will have to convert to Christianity or go into exile. At first, Gaudy Sarah is prepared to convert, discouraged at the news that the Grand Rabbi of Spain converted, but she changes her mind and decides to go into exile in Portugal with her children. 

Hasan begins explaining that his family no longer celebrates the feast of Mihrajan because it coincided with the Castilian occupation. While on a walk, Warda recognizes one of the soldiers as Juan, her brother. Despite the reunion, Warda (or Esmerelda, which is revealed to be her birth name) is reluctant to return to her home village because she has grown to prefer the city of Granada and the luxurious life Muhammad has given to her.

Juan strikes Muhammad and refuses to let Warda stay with him unless he is baptized and enters a Christian marriage. Muhammad refuses, and Juan forces Warda away, leaving Mariam behind with Hasan’s family and Muhammad inconsolable. Muhammad visits Hamid, who has developed a reputation as being able to retrieve Muslims held captive by Christians. However, Hamid declines to work toward finding Warda, advising Muhammad to instead find another wife among the widows of Granada.

Like the Jewish community of Spain, the Muslims of Granada are given a choice between conversion to Christianity or exile. Astaghfirullah preaches that remaining in a territory ruled by Christians would be sinful and urges exile. However, he shows compassion to an elderly gardener named Sa’d and argues that it is all right for him to remain because he is old and sick. Still, the Granadans who can leave slowly trickle away. Muhammad is resistant to the idea of exile but suddenly declares that they must leave for the port city of Almeria. Meanwhile, Hamid vows to remain until no Muslim left in Granada needs his services.