Literary Elements and Devices
SuperSummary offers a library of articles on literary terms and devices, ranging from allusion to metaphor, alliteration to hyperbole, irony to symbolism. We also cover figures of speech, poetic and rhetorical devices, and literary techniques and eras. Each article provides in-depth information, including the term's definitions and uses, as well as examples from literature. Learn something new, or relive high school English class, with these comprehensive articles.
Character
Antagonist – Antagonists (an-TAG-uh-nist) are characters who oppose the protagonist and create narrative conflict by challenging, obstructing, or confronting them. The antagonist can take many forms, including an individual character, a force, or a group or institution. Narrative conflict can also manifest internally within the protagonist, through antagonistic traits like pride or apathy.
Archetype – In literature, an archetype (AHR-kih-typuh) is a character, situation, emotion, symbol, or event that is recurrent throughout different stories from many cultures. Because of the frequency with which these are seen, they’re considered universal symbols.
Characterization – Characterization (care-ack-tur-ih-ZEY-shun) uses context and detail to reveal something about a character. In literature, characterization is expressed directly and indirectly through physical descriptions, dialogue, characters’ inner thoughts, and actions. These details reveal characters’ behavior, psychology, personality, and motive.
Deuteragonist – The deuteragonist (doo-terr-AHH-guh-nuhst) is the second most important character in a story. The concept comes from ancient Greek drama that featured only three actors and a chorus. The main actor would portray the protagonist, with the second and third actors portraying the deuteragonist and the tritagonist, respectively. In fact, the Greek deuteragōnistēs means “second actor.”
Flat Character – Flat characters (FLAT CARE-ihk-ters) are two-dimensional characters who are defined by a single trait or characteristic. They can often be described with a single word—such as teacher, bully, or jock—that encapsulates their personality and narrative purpose. Flat characters are usually minor characters who serve perfunctory roles. This does not mean they’re inherently boring or poorly conceived; they just lack depth and complexity.
Foil – Foils (FOY-ulls) are characters with contrasting personalities. Secondary characters and antagonists are frequently set up as foils to the protagonist, but minor characters, groups, and subplots can also be foils of each other. Writers use these contrasts to emphasize characterization, reinforce a character’s role in the story, and enrich narrative themes.
Pedant – A pedant (PEHdint) is a person who is overly concerned with minor details and rules in the presentation or use of knowledge. Pedants are excessively preoccupied with displaying their knowledge, often to the detriment of the information they share.
Personification – Personification (per-SAHN-nuh-fuh-KAY-shun) is a technique of figurative language that endows non-human subjects with human characteristics. This figure of speech is a form of metaphor, in that it ascribes the qualities of one thing to another.
Perspective – Perspective (purr-SPEK-tihv) is the way a character’s perceptions, values, and opinions affect a story. It is influenced by factors like personality, socioeconomic status, cultural background, education, spirituality, and language. These details all inform a character’s beliefs and attitudes, giving them a distinct way of perceiving the world, which in turn shapes the narrative. In fact, the word perspective stems from the Latin prospectus, which means “view.”
Point of View – Point of view (POYnt of VYOO) describes the person from whom the events of the story are told. In any written work—including narratives, poems, and songs—the speaker or narrator provides the point of view.
Protagonist – The protagonist (pro-TAG-uh-nist) is the main character in a story. Also called the central character, focal character, primary character, or hero, the protagonist plays a key role in a narrative’s development because the story revolves around them. They encounter some internal or external conflict that drives the plot, and they tend to experience transformative change that incites the climax and resolves the narrative.
Round Character – Round characters (ROWWnd care-ihk-ters) are complex and multifaceted. There’s more to them than what appears on the surface because they have layered personalities and multifaceted backgrounds, desires, and motivations. These characters are authentically complicated and flawed, like real people, thus making stories interesting and believable.
Static Character – Static characters (STAH-tuhk CARE-ihk-ters) are characters who remain unchanged regardless of plot, conflict, or environment. They experience little to no internal development, maintaining the same characterization they were introduced with.
Stereotype – A stereotype (STEH-ree-oh-tiep) is a generalized belief about a group of people. These generalizations are assumed to be true about every person within the group and typically revolve around traits, beliefs, behaviors, and skills.
Subjective – Subjective (suhb-JEK-tiv) is an adjective that describes something that’s based on a person’s opinions, individual experiences, and biased influences instead of facts. Literary criticism and interpretations are subjective because they reflect the critic’s opinion of a work rather than the author’s intent. Other subjective works include opinion editorials, reviews, literary interpretations, and subjective narrative literature.
Tragic Flaw – A tragic flaw (TRAH-jik FLAWW) or fatal flaw is a character trait that causes the downfall or demise of that character. This flaw can be negative, like jealousy, or positive, like honesty. In Greek, the tragic flaw is also closely aligned with hamartia, meaning “to err” or “to miss the mark.”
Tragic Hero – A tragic hero (TRAA-jik HE-row) is a protagonist whose traits or choices cause their downfall. These characters embody heroic traits like courage, compassion, and integrity, but they fail to successfully confront their main conflict due to a fatal flaw, poor judgment, or a combination of both.
Genre Category
Epigram – An epigram (EHP-ih-gram) is a pithy saying expressed in an amusing way. Epigrams are often, but not exclusively, short satirical poems with an ingenious and witty ending. A person who writes (or recites) epigrams is called an epigrammatist.
Farce – A farce (FARSS) is a literary work that contains ridiculous plots, exaggerated characters, and over-the-top situations for comedic effect. Farces are most associated with theatre; many comedic plays, from antiquity to the modern day, are farces because of their overstated humor and buffoonery. Other types of literature, like novels, short stories, and poems, can include farcical components. Film and television writers also utilize farce to tell lighthearted and entertaining stories, most commonly in slapstick comedy movies and children’s programming.
Fiction – Fiction (FICK-shun) is a literary genre comprised of narratives that aren’t factual but are, instead, products of the authors’ imaginations. Fiction is the opposite of nonfiction, a literary genre consisting of historically accurate narratives about real people or events. Fiction writers construct imaginary worlds, typically with symbolism, thematic elements, and aesthetic value.
Genre – A genre (ZHAWN-ruh) is a category of literature in which different works share certain accepted conventions. Ancient Greek writers identified three main literary genres—poetry, prose, and drama—as a way of categorizing the written word. But, over the subsequent centuries, evolving literary customs required the addition of numerous genres and subgenres to this list; naturally, some genres virtually disappeared as their popularity dwindled. Today, the four main literary genres are fiction, nonfiction, drama, and poetry.
Melodrama – A melodrama (MEH-low-drah-muh) is a literary or theatrical work that exaggerates the elements of the standard dramatic form. Melodramas overemphasize the emotions of their characters, usually to elicit an emotional response from the reader or viewer. There is often an outlandishness to the situations and events in which characters find themselves. Melodramas are frequently associated with theater, movies, and television shows, but they are also found in novels, short stories, and poems.
Parody – A parody (PAIR-uh-dee) deliberately exaggerates a specific literary genre or writer’s work for humorous effect. This overstated approach allows parodies to mimic their source material in a way that highlights the themes or styles of the original. Depending on the goals of the writer, a parody may lightly critique the original text, celebrate it, or challenge readers to think of it in a new light. However, the primary objective of the parodist is to make the reader laugh.
Pastiche – A pastiche (pass-TEESH) is a literary work that imitates or borrows from another, typically better-known, literary work. Pastiche does not ridicule or mock the original work; it functions more as celebration and homage. This separates pastiche from parody, which is more pointed in its mockery, though both approaches possess a certain lightheartedness.
Prose – Prose (PROHzuh) is written language that appears in its ordinary form, without metrical structure or line breaks. This definition is an example of prose writing, as are most textbooks and instruction manuals, emails and letters, fiction writing, newspaper and magazine articles, research papers, conversations, and essays.
Satire – Satire (SAH-tie-urr) uses humor and exaggeration to criticize something or someone, typically a public figure, social norm, or government policy. The term can describe both the genre of satirical writing and the literary device of satire, which a writer might utilize in a particular scene or passage of a work that isn’t a wholly satirical piece.
Science Fiction – Science fiction (SIGH-innss FICK-shun) is a type of literature that deals with inventive technologies, futurism, space travel and exploration, and other science-based components. Technically, science fiction is a subgenre of the larger genre of fiction, but because science fiction is such a vast and broad category on its own, most writers and readers consider it a standalone genre.
Tragedy – A tragedy (TRA-jud-dee) is a genre of drama focusing on stories of human suffering. The drama typically consists of a human flaw or weakness in one of the work’s central characters, which then triggers a devastating event or series of events for those in that character’s orbit.
Genre Form
Argumentative Essay – An argumentative essay [ahr-gyuh-MEN-tuh-tiv ess-ay] is an essay in which the writer uses thorough research to defend their position on a disputable topic. An argumentative essay contains a thesis, multiple body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The body can also include a counterargument.
Autobiography – An autobiography (awe-tow-bye-AWE-gruh-fee) is a self-written biography. The author writes about all or a portion of their own life to share their experience, frame it in a larger cultural or historical context, and/or inform and entertain the reader.
Biography – A biography (BYE-og-ruh-fee) is a written account of one person’s life authored by another person. A biography includes all pertinent details from the subject’s life, typically arranged in a chronological order. The word biography stems from the Latin biographia, which succinctly explains the word’s definition: bios = “life” + graphia = “write.”
Compare and Contrast Essay – A compare and contrast essay (kuhm-PAIR and kuhn-TRAST ESS-ey) is a composition that points out the similarities and differences of two or more things.
Dramatic Monologue – Dramatic monologue (druh-MAT-ik MON-uh-log) is a literary form where the writer takes on the voice of a character and speaks through them. Although dramatic monologues also occur in theater and prose, the term most frequently refers to a poetic form where the poet creates a character who speaks without interruption. Within the poem’s framework, the speaker reveals surprising information about their character or situation to an implied or explicit audience, often not intended to be the reader.
Epic – An epic (eh-PIC) poem is a long, typically novel-length, poetic work. It is a type of narrative poem, which tells a story, typically in third-person point of view, through the typical conventions of poetry. The conventions include rhyme, meter, or some other aural device, and they are used to make the tale more engaging and memorable. Epics tend to follow a hero who represents a perfect citizen of their culture. These stories are of cultural, historical, and religious importance.
Epigraph – An epigraph (EH-puh-graf) is a short quotation that opens a work of literature. It can be prose or poetry. In a book, an epigraph is generally found after the title page and before the body of the text begins; in a poem, it’s under the title but above the first line.
Essay – An essay (ES-ey) is a nonfiction composition that explores a concept, argument, idea, or opinion from the personal perspective of the writer. Essays are usually a few pages, but they can also be book-length. Unlike other forms of nonfiction writing, like textbooks or biographies, an essay doesn’t inherently require research. Literary essayists are conveying ideas in a more informal way.
Expository Essay – An expository essay [ik-SPOZ-ih-tohr-ee ess-ay] is an essay in which the writer researches a topic and uses evidence to inform their readers or clarify the topic. They can take many forms, including a how-to essay, an essay that defines something, or an essay that studies a problem and offers a solution.
Memoir – A memoir (MIM-wahr) is a literary form in which the author relates and reflects on experiences from their own life. Memoirs and autobiographies share many similarities, as both are types of self-written biographies. But while an autobiography provides a comprehensive account of someone’s life, a memoir is a series of formative or notable memories or events that impacted the author in some way. Memoirs also focus on the author’s thoughts and feelings about those events, what they learned, and how they integrated the experiences into their life.
Novel – A novel (NAH-vull) is a narrative work of fiction published in book form. Novels are longer than short stories and novellas, with the greater length allowing authors to expand upon the same basic components of all fictional literature—character, conflict, plot, and setting, to name a few.
Persuasive Essay – A persuasive essay (purr-SWEY-siv ESS-ey) is a composition in which the essayist’s goal is to persuade the reader to agree with their personal views on a debatable topic. A persuasive essay generally follows a five-paragraph model with a thesis, body paragraphs, and conclusion, and it offers evidential support using research and other persuasive techniques.
Play – A play (PLAY) is a literary work written for the theater that dramatizes events through the performance of dialogue and stage directions. The authors of plays, called playwrights, structure the performances into acts and scenes, which help build the tension and present the story in a compelling way for audiences. There are a few types of plays, such as those written for the stage, for radio (radio plays), and for television or motion pictures (screenplays).
Poem – A poem (POH-im) is a piece of writing wherein words are arranged in a way that has aesthetic, sonic, and semantic value. Poems are carefully composed to convey ideas, emotions, and/or experiences vividly through literal and figurative imagery, as well as the frequent use of formal elements such as stanzaic structure, rhyme, and meter.
Refrain – The definition of refrain (ree-FRAYN) varies from source to source and in specific contexts, such as written poetry or song lyrics. In poetry, a refrain is something that is repeated in a poem, whether it’s a single word, a phrase, a line, or a group of lines. The repetition often occurs at the end of a stanza (a standardized grouping of lines) or strophe (a group of lines unrestricted by consistency). A poem can have several refrains, and the words in the refrain can vary between repetitions (typically the case with a villanelle, for example).
Vignette – A vignette (vin-nyet) is a short, descriptive literary passage that conveys an impression about a character, setting, object, or mood. Vignettes contain neither plot nor full narrative description; instead, they are carefully composed verbal sketches that generally occur within a larger work. Vignettes can be found in any literary work, including poems and plays, films, television shows, and journalism.
Grammar
Antecedent – An antecedent (AN-tuh-SEE-dent) is a grammatical device in which a pronoun, noun, or other word refers to an earlier noun or phrase. For example, in the sentence “Sally walked her dog,” the pronoun her refers to Sally, making Sally the antecedent. Most commonly, an antecedent has a personal pronoun, as it does in the previous example (her), a demonstrative pronoun like this or that, or a relative pronoun like who or which.
Asyndeton – Asyndeton (ah-SIN-di-ton) is the deliberate omission of a coordinating conjunction between words or phrases in literature or any written speech.
Cacophony – As a general term, cacophony (ka-KAW-fuh-nee) refers to a riot of discordant sound. As a literary term, cacophony refers to clashing or jarring consonant sounds being placed together in speech or writing.
Chiasmus – Chiasmus (kee-AZZ-mus), from the Greek letter chi, is a type of parallelism: a grammatical and rhetorical term for creating a sense of linguistic balance by repeating elements within a sentence, over the course of several sentences, or in a longer work or speech.
Epanalepsis – Epanalepsis (ep-uh-nuh-LEP-sis) is a repetition of the beginning of a sentence or clause at the end of a sentence or clause. The device can be achieved in several ways as the repeated words don’t have to be identically stated, don’t have to be the very first word or words of the sentence, and can occur over two sentences.
Parallel Structure – Parallel structure (peh-ruh-LEL STRUHK-churr) is a synonym for parallelism: a grammatical and rhetorical term for creating a sense of linguistic balance by repeating elements within a sentence, over the course of several sentences, or in a longer work or speech.
Parallelism – Parallelism (peh-ruh-LEL-iz-um) is a grammatical and rhetorical term for creating a sense of linguistic balance by repeating elements within a sentence, over the course of several sentences, or in a longer work or speech.
Polysyndeton – Polysyndeton (PAH-lee-SIN-di-ton) is the stylistic addition of coordinating conjunctions where none are grammatically necessary.
Sentence – A sentence (SIN-tents) is a word or group of words organized to convey a complete thought. Second only to the word, sentences are the basic building block of modern human communication.
Syntax – Syntax (SIN-tacks), from the ancient Greek for “arrangement,” refers to the way a writer or speaker chooses to order their words. It’s an aspect of grammar, a general term for all the rules and best practices for effective writing.
Linguistics
Active Voice – Active voice is a grammar device. It can be defined as a type of clause or sentence that contains a subject taking some type of action or interacting with an object or another person. The clause or sentence’s emphasis is placed on who or what is taking the action rather than who or what is on the receiving end of said action.
Assonance – Assonance (AZZ-so-nanss) is a literary sound device that repeats a vowel sound several times in a sequence of words. It’s easiest to spot in poetry, but it can be used to great effect in fiction, nonfiction, speeches, and advertisement as well. The word comes from French via the Latin assonantem, meaning “to resound.”
Colloquialism – Colloquialism (kuh-LOH-kwee-uh-liz-um) is the use of informal, everyday language in writing. The word derives from the Latin colloquium, meaning “speaking together” or “conversation.” Colloquialisms often evolve from specific dialects, or language variants spoken in certain regions.
Connotation – Connotation (kon-oh-TAY-shun) is the cultural or emotional association related to a word that extends beyond its dictionary definition. Many words are synonymous but have different emotional effects, impacting the reader in a distinct way. Connotation may also vary based on reader background, as people with particular life experiences or living in diverse cultures may respond to certain words in distinct ways.
Consonance – Consonance (CAHN-so-nanss) is a literary sound device that repeats a consonant sound several times in a sequence of words. It’s easiest to spot in poetry, but it can be used to great effect in fiction, nonfiction, speeches, and advertisement as well.
Enjambment – Enjambment (In-JAM-mint) is when one line of poetry flows into the next without being end-stopped, meaning it doesn’t end with punctuation. Enjambment can be used to put emphasis on a word, vary meter or rhythm, or divert the reader’s expectations. It can help create a sense of tension and release to make writing more engaging and exciting.
Jargon – Jargon (JAR-guhn) is a type of specialized language used within a particular field. When used positively, the term indicates a type of precise, technical language. When used negatively, jargon might suggest an overly complicated and pretentious way of speaking.
Onomatopoeia – Onomatopoeia (ON-uh-MAT-uh-PEE-uh) refers to words that imitate or evoke the sound they refer to. Put another way, these words look like they sound. The term stems from the Greek onoma, meaning “name,” and poiein, meaning “to make” (poet also stems from poiein).
Passive Voice – Passive voice (PAH-sihv voys) occurs when the subject of a sentence or clause is acted upon by the verb. For example, in the sentence “The cake was eaten by the teacher,” the subject (the cake) receives the action of the verb, “was eaten.” Thus, the sentence is in the passive voice. If it was written in active voice, it would be “The teacher ate the cake.”
Sound Devices – A sound device (SOWNduh dee-VISE) is a literary tool employed in verse plays, poetry, and prose to emphasize various sounds. Sound devices allow writers to amplify certain sonic elements through the repetition of chosen vowel or consonant sounds, units of rhythm, or by mimicking sounds that occur naturally in the world outside of the text. Writers frequently utilize multiple different types of sound device within the same literary work.
Transition – Transitions (tran-ZISH-ins) are words and phrases that connect sentences, paragraphs, and ideas. They are used to help writing flow smoothly and unify disparate elements into a unified whole. Transition words and phrases are like little bridges that writers use to help readers seamlessly cross from one idea to the next.
Vernacular – Vernacular (vur-NAHK-yoo-luhr) is the informal spoken language of a particular region, culture, or group. It comes from the Latin term vernula, meaning “native.”
Narrative
Ambiguity – Ambiguity (am-big-YOU-ih-tee) refers to the quality of being open to multiple interpretations. In literature, ambiguity may occur with a character, word or phrase, plot point, image, trope, or situation that can be understood in two or more possible ways. It allows room for doubt and complexity, as well as moments of double entendre and humor.
Antithesis – Antithesis (ann-TIH-thuh-suhs), put simply, means the absolute opposite of something. As a literary term, it refers to the juxtaposition of two opposing entities in parallel structure. Antithesis is an effective literary device because humans tend to define through contrast. Therefore, antithesis can help readers understand something by defining its opposite.
Attitude – Attitude (ADD-ih-tood) is the way someone thinks or feels about something, which is usually apparent in their behavior. In literature, attitude refers to the way an author or character thinks or feels about the subject. It’s expressed through the author’s word choice, chosen point of view, tone, voice, and sentence structure.
Audience – An audience (AW-dee-ins) is a group of people who have gathered to listen to or witness a public event such as a play, speech, or concert. In literature, an audience is who the author writes their piece for—in other words, the reader.
Claim – A claim (KLAYM) in literature is a statement in which a writer presents an assertion as truthful to substantiate an argument. A claim may function as a single argument by itself, or it may be one of multiple claims made to support a larger argument.
Context – Context (KAHN-tekst) is the circumstances that inform an event, an idea, or a statement. It is the detail that adds meaning to a text. Readers can study internal context—details included by the author, such as backstory, characterization, or setting—as well as external context—the time period of the work’s publication, the author’s literary influences, and even their personal history.
Diction – Diction (DIK-shun) is word choice, or the intentional selection of vocabulary that is most effective, appropriate, or clear.Teachers and academics often use the term when examining why a writer chose a given word and how this choice affects the text’s meaning and expression. It’s for this reason that diction is often regarded as a measure of a work’s quality.
In Medias Res – In medias res (inn ME-dee-ahs RACE) comes from “Ars Poetica,” a letter written by Ancient Roman poet Horace in which he offers advice to young poets. Among the gems of wisdom is “Semper ad eventum festinat et in medias res…,” which roughly translates to “The result is always eager to get in the middle of things.” This is often clarified to mean “He always hurries to the main event and whisks his audience into the middle of things as though they already knew.”
Irony – Irony (EYE-run-ee) is a literary device in which a word or event means something different—and often contradictory—to its actual meaning. At its most fundamental, irony is a difference between reality and something’s appearance or expectation, creating a natural tension when presented in the context of a story. In recent years, irony has taken on an additional meaning, referring to a situation or joke that is subversive in nature; the fact that the term has come to mean something different than what it actually does is, in itself, ironic.
Mood – Mood (MOOduh) is the atmosphere surrounding a story and the emotions that the story evokes in the reader. Any adjective can describe a mood, both in literature and in life, such as playful, tense, hopeful, dejected, creepy, lonely, amusing, or suspenseful.
Motivation – Motivation (moh-dih-VAY-shuhn) is the reason compelling a person’s actions and behaviors. In literature, it’s what drives a character’s goals and inclination to do something.
Narrative – Narrative (NAIR-uh-tihv) is a spoken or written account of related events conveyed using certain literary techniques and devices. Narratives are seen throughout written works and other media, including prose, verse, movies and television shows, theater, music, video games, and podcasts.
Omniscient – Omniscient (ahm-NIH-shihnt) is a literary tool where the author writes a narrative in third person, and the story’s narrator has complete awareness, understanding, and insight into the thoughts, feelings, and motivations of some or all of the characters in the story.
Pseudonym – Pseudonyms (SOO-duh-nims) are fictitious names used by groups or individuals. People choose to use pseudonyms for a variety reasons, ranging from privacy to marketing. There are also several types of pseudonyms. Authors publish under pen names, for example, while actors and musicians perform under stage names.
Plot
Allusion – Allusions (ale-LOO-shuhn) are textual references to an object or subject that exists outside the text. They use readers’ prior knowledge and associations to enhance emotion or clarify significance. Literary allusions are typically indirect or implied, meaning readers must make the connection themselves. Allusions can refer to other texts, authors, characters, time periods, places, and events.
Anagnorisis – Anagnorisis (uh-nag-nor-EE-sis) is a literary device referring to the moment in a narrative when the protagonist realizes either their own or someone else’s true identity and/or understands their situation in a new, more complete way. This typically leads to the story’s resolution and is a common device in tragedies.
Anecdote – Anecdotes (ANN-ek-DOETSS) are short stories that recount amusing, interesting, or informative events to make a point or express an idea. Their length can range from a single sentence to a couple paragraphs.
Aside – An aside (ah-side) is a literary term referencing a remark or passage in a play that is intended to be heard by the audience but not by any other characters. It is often spoken in an undertone or directly addresses the audience and serves as commentary that reveals the private feelings, thoughts, and reactions of the character who is speaking. Asides can occur in novels, short stories, memoirs, and poetry as well, but they are most commonly a theatrical convention in plays.
Atmosphere – Atmosphere (AT-muh-sfeer) is the feeling or sense evoked by an environment or setting. Writers develop a story’s atmosphere with description and narration, using literary devices and techniques like setting, imagery, diction, and figurative language.
Cliffhanger – A cliffhanger (KLIF-hang-ur) is the abrupt ending of a plotline that leaves major elements of the story unresolved until the next installment of the work. It can be something as simple as an interrupted bit of dialogue or something as drastic as a character death.
Conflict – In literature, conflict (KAHN-flikt) entails the opposition of forces or people that creates the dramatic action of a narrative.
Dystopia – Dystopian literature is a genre of fiction set in future or near-future societies where life and social structures are in calamitous decline. Authors of dystopian literature typically use the setting to examine social and political systems and contemplate what would happen if these systems were amplified. The result is often a society in shambles, with rampant oppression, violence, poverty, and revolution.
Epiphany – An epiphany (ih-PIH-fah-nee) is a sudden realization that changes a character’s worldview. Epiphanies tend to be revelatory, as they allow characters to see information in a different or clearer light. They also enable characters to view the past with a new perspective.
Exposition – Exposition (EK-spuh-ZI-shuhn) is a writing technique that discloses details about events, settings, or characters. Exposition is crucial to setting the stage, as it provides readers with essential background information like character backstories, past plot points, and historical context. Taken on their own, these pieces of information are called expository details.
Foreshadowing – Foreshadowing (for-SHA-doe-wing) is a literary technique used to hint at what will unfold in a story, such as future events, connections, or outcomes. Foreshadowing can be subtle or obvious, and often has an element of irony attached to it.
Frame Story – A frame story (FRAYmuh STORE-ee), also known as a frame tale, is a literary device where one overarching story contains one or more related stories and unifies the narrative.
Illusion – An illusion (ih-LOO-zuhn) is a false or deceptive image, idea, or impression, or else a mistaken or erroneous perception. Illusions are most commonly associated with tricks of the senses, like optical and auditory illusions that deceive the eye or ear. When applied to literature, an illusion can be a narrative technique, such as a dream, vision, or other device that misleads, confuses, or tricks a character. However, illusion also refers to the process of reading that leads to immersion, when the reader experiences the narrative as if it were real.
Juxtaposition – A juxtaposition (JUHK-stuh-puh-ZI-shuhn) is a side-by-side comparison of two things, such as settings, characters, or ideas.
Pacing – Pacing (PAY-sing) is the rate at which a story develops. Narrative pace is controlled through several elements, including the length of scenes, the delivery and depth of description, and the rate and intensity of the action. Genre can also play into pacing, as the plot of an action-adventure story will likely move faster than that of a historical drama.
Plot – Plot (PLAWT) is the series of events that comprise a story’s main action. It is typically made up of a sequence of individual but connected elements that compels the main character(s) to embark on a journey. This journey can be physically or mentally and emotionally in nature, though it is often both. The plot’s primary journey leads to a climactic event and a resolution.
Poetry
Anapest – An anapest (ann-uh-pehst) is a type of metrical foot. The syllabic pattern for an anapest consists of two unaccented syllables followed by an accented syllable. Anapests can be seen throughout English poetry and verse plays, but they are most frequently employed in comic verse, such as limericks.
Ballad – Ballad (BAH-lihd) poetry is a type of narrative poetry that is written to be sung. It’s a story that can be set to music, so some sort of rhythm or musicality is required. These are the only two absolute qualifications.
Blank Verse – Blank verse (BLAYnk vurss) is a genre of poetry where the lines have a consistent meter but no rhyme scheme. It is primarily written in iambic pentameter and has been an essential part of Western literature since the 16th century. Blank verse is commonly used in verse plays, such as those of William Shakespeare, long poetic works like John Milton’s Paradise Lost, and shorter poems such as those by the Romantic poets.
Cadence – Cadence (KAY-dense) refers to the rhythmic flow or sequence of sound in language, particularly the rising and falling of a voice. Cadence also indicates changes in rhythm, pitch, and aural pacing. This literary term is most commonly used in reference to poetry, but it also applies to prose and music.
Canto – A canto (CAN-toe) is the major unit of division in epics or other long narrative poems. Similar in function to a stanza, a canto helps divide a lengthy poem into discrete units, demarcating sections and enabling a coherent story to unfold.
Couplet – A couplet (cuhp-leht) consists of two successive poetic lines. While couplets often rhyme and share the same metrical pattern, many couplets vary in metrical structure and don’t rhyme at all. Couplets can stand alone as their own stanza, or they can occur within a larger stanza, differentiated from the surrounding lines by rhyme, grammatical structure, or a thought that links the two lines together.
Epitaph – An epitaph (EP-ah-taf) is a short statement, often a poem or other brief written inscription, that commemorates or memorializes a deceased person.
Foot – The literary term foot refers to an unit of measurement in poetry, comprised of patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables. The combination of different numbers and types of feet is what determines poetic meter.
Free Verse – Free verse (furEE VURHss) is a form of poetry that does not utilize regular patterns of rhyme, rhythm, or meter. Although rhyme and rhythm may occur, there is no standard regulating them to which the poet must adhere. Free verse poems tend to mimic the patterns of natural speech, as well as build upon and play with flights of imagery and repeated sounds.
Haiku – The haiku (hi-COO) is a form of Japanese poetry that originated in the 17th century. The haiku consists of three lines and has a syllabic count of 17.
Iamb – An iamb (EYE-am) is a metrical unit consisting of two syllables where an initial unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable. For example, the words amuse (a-MUSE), portray (por-TRAY), delight (de-LIGHT), and return (re-TURN) are all iambs. Iambs are used in poetry and in verse plays.
Lyric – A lyric (lih-RIK) is a type of personal rhythmic poetry. A lyric poem does not contain a narrative because its intent is making feelings understood rather than relating events. It is concerned with the often intense or complicated feelings of the speaker (who may or may not be the poet themselves).
Meter – Meter (mee-ter) is the systematic arrangement of language in a series of rhythmic movements involving stressed and unstressed syllables. It is a poetic measure related to the length and rhythm of the poetic line.
Narrative Poem – A narrative poem (NEHR-uh-tiv POH-um) tells a story. Born from oral tradition, narrative poetry served to entertain, as well as preserve and transmit cultural, historical, and religious content. Unlike lyric poetry, narrative poems focus on plot and characters, rather than emotions. Narrative poetry uses narrative and poetic elements to form an engaging, indelible hybrid. A modern scholar might consider narrative poetry a broad umbrella under which epic poetry resides.
Ode – An ode (OHD) is a type of poem, generally written to address and praise a subject. It utilizes rhyme and a complex or irregular metrical form.
Prosody – Prosody (PROHZ-o-dee) is a method for studying metrical structures, particularly rhythmic and intonational patterns, of words. Prosody is generally discussed in the context of poetry, although it is also utilized, to a lesser extent, in prose.
Quatrain – A quatrain (KWA-trayn) is a four-line stanza. Quatrains can exist as stanzas within a larger poem, or they can be standalone poems made of a single quatrain. They can utilize rhyme and meter, or they can be written in free verse. The line length of quatrains can vary.
Rhyme – Rhyme (RYEm) is the repetition of a similar sound between words or the ending of words, particularly when used at the end of lines of poetry, songs, or plays in verse.
Rhyme Scheme – Rhyme scheme (RHY SKEEm) is the ordered occurrence of rhymes at the end of the lines of a poem or verse. While rhyme can also occur within lines of poetry, the term rhyme scheme indicates the pattern of rhyme at the end of the lines. In other words, a rhyme scheme is the blueprint for a poem’s rhyming pattern.
Rhythm – Rhythm (RIH-thum) is the recurring pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in the flow of language in a literary work, particularly verse. Rhythm is best understood as the pace and beat of a poem, and it’s created through specific variations of syllabic emphasis.
Sestina – A sestina (ses-TEE-na) is a poetic form comprised of seven stanzas. It is a fixed-verse form, meaning it follows a strict structure. The first six stanzas are sextains; they have six lines each. The seventh stanza has three lines. While some historical sestinas employ rhyme or meter, modern-day English sestinas are written in blank verse—they do not rhyme.
Sonnet – The sonnet (SAWN-it) is a fixed-verse 14-line poem that tends to follow a set rhyme scheme and meter. Sonnets propose a problem in their opening section and resolve it later. The moment in the sonnet where the poem shifts into resolution is called the volta, or “turn.” These poems often address themes like love, nature, religion, morality, and politics.
Stanza – Stanza (STAN-zuh) refers to a group of lines that forms the basic unit in a poem. Think of a stanza as the equivalent of a paragraph in prose. Stanzas appear in free verse, blank verse, and formal verse poetry.
Rhetoric: Figurative
Adage – An adage (AD-ij) is a saying that communicates a truth. These sayings are usually very closely related to their respective local language and culture of origin, but they can still resonate across cultures. Some adages restate older sayings as a result, conveying the original in a way that better connects with the present moment or culture involved.
Aphorism – An aphorism (AFF-or-iz-uhm) is a concise saying that presents a principle or observation as a universal truth. Aphorisms are often witty, and for centuries, they have appeared in philosophy, religion, politics, literature, and daily life because of their general truths and memorable nature.
Apostrophe – An apostrophe (uh-POSS-truh-fee) is when a writer or speaker addresses someone who isn’t present or isn’t alive, an inanimate object, an abstract idea, or an imaginary figure.
Cliché – A cliché (klee-SHAY) is a scenario or expression that is used excessively, to the point that it is considered unoriginal. A cliché can refer to any aspect of a literary narrative—a specific phrase, scenario, genre, or character. The term has a negative connotation, as clichés are often associated with lazy writing. When a narrative contains clichés, the reader is no longer surprised by it, making things feel inauthentic and challenging the reader’s suspension of disbelief.
Conceit – A conceit (kuhn-SEAT) is an elaborate, improbable comparison between two very unlike things to create an imaginative connection between them. As a result, conceits are often mentioned in connection with simile, extended metaphors, and allegories since they also use comparisons or symbolic imagery. It’s a device commonly used in poetry.
Double Entendre – A double entendre (DUH-bull ahn-TAHN-druh) is a figure of speech that involves two different meanings or interpretations of a word, phrase, or sentence, wherein one meaning is readily apparent and the other is more risqué in nature.
Figure of Speech – Figures of speech (FIG-yurs of SPEEchuh) are words or phrases used in a non-literal sense for rhetorical effect. They are often constructed using literary devices such as metaphor, simile, alliteration, metonymy, synecdoche, and personification. Figures of speech allow writers to apply familiar ideas and imagery to less familiar concepts, and they are widespread in written and spoken language.
Innuendo – An innuendo (in-YOO-en-doe) is an insinuating, indirect remark frequently associated with veiled sexual comments. However, it can also refer to something negative and degrading.
Litotes – Litotes (lie-TOH-tees) is an expression that affirms an idea by contradicting its negative. Though often used to convey positive thoughts, it can be used for negative thoughts as well. This figure of speech is more accessible and familiar than any definition could make it sound, but essentially, litotes is a lighter, less harsh version of verbal irony.
Sarcasm – Sarcasm (SAR-kahz-um) is a spoken, bitter remark often used to mock or offend. The wording may seem positive, but the speaker’s tone conveys their true intent. Sarcasm can be harsh and meant to hurt someone or said as a joke to amuse others.
Trope – A trope (TROWpuh) is a figure of speech that allows words to deviate in some way from their literal meaning so they’re understood in a figurative way. Tropes often utilize comparison or association to shift readers away from the denotative definition of words and towards a more multifaceted meaning. Tropes appear in all genres of literature, as well as everyday speech, advertising, and political rhetoric.
Rhetoric: Persuasive
Ad Hominem – Ad hominem (add HOMM-inn-emm), also known as argumentum ad hominem, is a rhetorical device that involves commenting on or against the individual making an argument rather than on the argument itself. As a result, ad hominem is categorized as a logical fallacy or argumentative error.
Assertion – An assertion (uh-SUR-shun) is an emphatic declaration by a speaker or writer. It’s not necessarily factually correct, but the person making the assertion forcefully states their belief as if it were true.
Bandwagon – The term bandwagon (band-WAA-gun) refers to a common logical fallacy that suggests that because a belief, action, or trend is already popular, everyone should adopt it. This idea is a powerful persuasive tool that is often used in propaganda and advertising.
Concession – A concession (kuhn-SEH-shun) in literature is a point yielded to an opposing perspective during an argument. It allows a writer to acknowledge that information presented by an opponent has some amount of validity and should be considered.
Discourse – Discourse (DISK-horse) is another word for written or spoken communication. The term is a broad one that has slightly different definitions depending on the discipline in which it is used; in literature, discourse refers to a presentation of thought through language. Discursive language typically contains long, detailed sentences that address a specific subject in a formal manner.
Enthymeme – An enthymeme (EN-thuh-meem) is a logical argument in which the writer or speaker omits but still implies at least one aspect of the argument’s premise. The omission is understood by the audience and does not take away from the argument’s larger point. The audience uses deductive reasoning to connect the unstated components of the premise with the stated components.
Ethos – Ethos (EE-thohs) is the quality of rhetoric where a speaker or writer indicates their knowledge, trustworthiness, morality, and good character. Ethos enables a rhetorician to create trust in their audience and establish themselves as a credible authority with the depth and breadth of knowledge necessary to examine their subject matter.
Hypophora – A hypophora (hi-PAH-for-uh) is when a speaker or writer asks a question before following with an answer; the answer is known as an anthypophora. Hypophoras differ from rhetorical questions in that the latter doesn’t provide a response.
Monologue – A monologue (MAHN-oh-log) is a speech articulated aloud by a single character, frequently to express their thoughts and feelings, but sometimes directed at a specific other character or to the audience. Monologues are most common in theatrical scripts, but they also can be found in poetry and prose.
Non Sequitur – In literature, a non sequitur (nahn SEK-wit-ur) is a statement or conclusion that does not logically arise from the thought that precedes it. Writers commonly utilize non sequiturs to heighten the comedic elements of a literary work, especially in theatrical plays and humorous writing. They commonly serve as comedic transitions, acting as purposefully awkward ways to change the subject or mood or signal a shift in the plot or conversation. Outside of literature, non sequiturs are mostly known as statements that seem to come unexpectedly.
Paradox – From Middle French via the Latin paradoxum, meaning “a seemingly absurd yet true statement,” paradox (PAIR-uh-docks) is a figure of speech that seems to contradicts itself but, upon deeper probing, contains some universal insight. One could say it’s a statement so incorrect that it becomes intensely true. A famous example of a paradox is the Socrates quote “I know only one thing: that I know nothing.”
Pathos – Pathos (PAY-thohs) is an element in rhetoric or artistic expression that elicits feelings of sympathy, compassion, pity, or sorrow from an audience. One way to remember the meaning of pathos is to think of the word pathetic. Although pathetic contains some negative connotations in slang, the word’s primary meaning is “arousing pity, sorrow, grief.” So, things that are pathetic contain pathos.
Persuasion – Persuasion (purr-SWAY-zhun) is a literary technique employed by writers to influence their audience. Writers use persuasion to present their ideas as reasonable and logical, establish their credibility and position as an authority in their field, and/or sway readers’ emotions. Writers may also employ persuasion to convince readers to take a certain position, change their beliefs to echo the writer’s own, or commit to taking action.
Rebuttal – A rebuttal (ree-BUH-tuhl) is a literary device wherein a writer presents reasons or evidence that undermine or challenge an opposing argument. Though rebuttals are not uncommon in literature, they are most often associated with court cases, where they are a type of evidence that contradicts or invalidates the evidence presented by the opposite party.
Rhetoric – Rhetoric (REH-tore-ick) refers to the art of using language well, particularly in terms of written and spoken discourse. Effective rhetoric utilizes various tools to persuade, move, entertain, and please its audience.
Rhetorical Question – A rhetorical question (rih-TOE-rih-cal KWEST-chan) is a figure of speech where a question is posed not to elicit an answer but to emphasize a point or create dramatic effect.
Semantic – Semantics (suh-MAN-ticks) refers to the interpretation of language, including words, sentences, phrasing, and symbols. This linguistics discipline also includes understanding the relationships between words and how readers build meaning from these relationships.
Syllogism – A syllogism (SILL-uh-jiz-um) is a type of deductive reasoning that presents a major premise and a minor premise to guide the reader towards a valid conclusion. Syllogisms are a component of rhetoric commonly seen in formal arguments, which means they can also be a powerful persuasive tool.
Story Structure & Literary Technique
Allegory – An allegory (AL-lih-gore-ee) is a story that has a hidden moral or political message. The characters and plot often symbolize real-life people, events, and ideas, but the comparison isn’t explicitly stated. Allegory comes from the Latin allegoria, which means “speaking to infer something different.”
Dichotomy – A dichotomy (die-CAHT-oh-me) can be any kind of division between two entities. The division could be physical, spiritual, philosophical, economical, or psychological. The entities can be two individuals, two groups of people, one person versus a group of people, or even two elements of a single person’s character at odds with each other.
Didacticism – Didacticism (dahy-DAK-tik-iz-um) is a literary movement encompassing written works that both instruct and entertain. Didactic literature’s overarching philosophy is that reading should contain a lesson as well as a certain amount of pleasure. In didacticism, entertainment doesn’t necessarily refer to an edge-of-your-seat kind of interest; it simply means a work is readable and not solely academic in nature.
Naturalism – Naturalism (NATCH-rull-ihz-uhm) is a late 19th-century literary movement in which writers focused on exploring the fundamental causes for their characters’ actions, choices, and beliefs. These causes centered on the influence of family and society upon the individual—and all the complications that exist therein—resulting in a view that environmental factors are the primary determinant of human character. Naturalism is in many ways interconnected with realism, but realism is primarily a style of writing, while naturalism is a philosophy in writing.
Realism – Realism (REEL-iz-um), or literary realism, is an era of literary technique in which authors described things as they are without embellishment or fantastical plots. Works of literary realism shun flowery language, exotic settings and characters, and epic stories of love and heroism. Instead, they focus on everyday lives and people in ordinary times and places.
Romanticism – Romanticism (roe-MAN-tuh-SIZZ-um) was a literary movement that emphasized individualism and emotion. The Romantic era lasted from the end of the 18th century to the middle of the 19th century, but its effects are still evident throughout modern literature.
Setting – Setting (SEHT-eeng) is where (location) and when (time period) a story takes place. Together, these broad categories encompass geographic region, climate, date, time, and architecture, as well as facets of culture and society like language, politics, fashion, and cuisine.
Stream of Consciousness – Stream of consciousness (stuhREEM uhv CAHN-shush-niss) is a narrative technique that imitates the nonlinear flow of thought. The term originates from 19th-century psychology and later became associated with literature as psychological theories began to influence late 19th- and early 20th-century fiction.
Style – Style (stEYEhl) is defined as the way something is done. In literature, it applies to how something is written. It distinguishes one author from another based on the tone and voice of their writing.
Symbolism – Symbolism (SIM-buh-liz-uhm) is when an object, person, or place represents an abstract idea beyond its literal meaning. Symbolism in literature can be as obvious as a storm representing a character’s internal turmoil or as subtle as a character’s yellow shirt foreshadowing a pending friendship.
Tone – In literature, tone (TOWhn) is the attitude a writer expresses toward the subject of their text. Because readers can’t hear a character’s tone of voice in writing, it is conveyed through the author’s diction.
Voice – Voice (VOYss) is the opinion or attitude authors express in their writing, an aspect of literature that better connects the reader to the material. It’s also an element of the narrator’s perspective, or what they bring to the piece based on their background, opinions, culture, and life experience. Essentially, voice is the personality of a piece of writing.
Style
Alliteration – Alliteration (uh-lit-uh-RAY-shun) is the deliberate repetition of a sound at the beginning of two or more words, stressed syllables, or both. The word derives from the Medieval Latin word alliteratio. The English word alliteration was first used in the 17th century.
Anadiplosis – Anadiplosis (ANN-uh-dih-PLOH-sis) is a figure of speech or literary device in which a word that appears at the end of a clause or sentence repeats at the beginning of the next clause or sentence. Writers use anadiplosis to conceptually connect clauses, emphasize themes, or create a rhythm.
Analogy – An analogy (uh-NAHL-uh-gee) is a rhetorical device in which a writer compares the shared qualities of two unrelated objects. They are different from similes and metaphors, which also compare unrelated objects by equating them. However, an analogy can employ either one to drive home its larger point. Analogies support logic, present rational arguments, and back up ideas by showing the relationship between disparate things.
Anaphora – An anaphora (uh-NAF-er-uh) is when a speaker or writer repeats a word or sequence of words at the beginning of a series of sentences or phrases. Anaphoras are an old figure of speech, used notably in religious devotionals such as the biblical psalms. Anaphoras regained popularity from time to time over the centuries, resurging in the Elizabethan and Romantic periods, and are still in use today.
Ellipsis – An ellipsis (uh-LIP-suhs) is an omission of words or events that allows readers to fill the gaps in the sentence or narrative. The word ellipsis comes from the Greek élleipsis, meaning “to leave out” or “fall short.”
Euphemism – A euphemism (YOO-fuh-miz-uhm) is a form of figurative language. These idiomatic, indirect expressions replace harsh, impolite, taboo, or unpleasant terms with more delicate phrases. They can be used humorously or to downplay or mask a situation, causing some to find the device deceitful or counterproductive.
Figurative Language – Figurative language (fih-gyur-EH-tiv LANE-gwidge) refers to words, phrases, and sentences that go beyond their literal meaning to add layers of interpretation to the audience’s understanding. Instead of relying solely on the dictionary definition of words, figurative language adds nuance, context, imagery, association, and other heightened effects to written or spoken phrasing.
Hyperbole – Hyperbole (hi-PURR-boh-lee), from the ancient Greek huperbolē, “to throw beyond,” is a quantitative or qualitative exaggeration used for dramatic, poetic, or humorous effect. It’s a common figure of speech that adds flavor to writing. Writers use it to engage readers with humor or catch them off-guard with an unbelievable image.
Idiom – An idiom (ID-ee-uhm) is an expression with a figurative or metaphorical meaning that differs from its literal meaning. Put another way, idioms don’t mean exactly what they say. The phrase turn over a new leaf has nothing to do with flipping leaves; it means starting over, adopting a new attitude or behavior.
Imagery – Imagery (ih-MUHJ-ree) is a literary device that allows writers to paint pictures in readers’ minds so they can more easily imagine a story’s situations, characters, emotions, and settings. A good way to understand imagery is to think of the word imagination. Writers form strong images by being specific and concrete and using language to appeal to the readers’ five senses.
Metaphor – A metaphor (MET-a-for) is an exact comparison between two unrelated things used for dramatic or poetic effect. This figure of speech has two parts: a tenor (the object or concept being described) and a vehicle (what the object or concept is compared to). For example, in the sentence “This soup is a masterpiece,” soup is the tenor and masterpiece is the vehicle.
Oxymoron – An oxymoron (AHX-ee-MORE-ahn), from the Greek for “pointedly foolish” or “dully sharp,” is a contradiction in terms. It seems illogical on its face, as the basic construction is word + antonymic (the opposite of that word) modifier; for example, minor crisis, as the former means “little or insignificant” while the latter can mean “emergency.” As its etymology suggests, oxymorons are often used for humor, especially satire.
Palindrome – A palindrome (PAL-en-drohm) is a word, sentence, or number that can be read the same way backwards and forwards. For example, the word did, the number 1991, and the sentence “Able was I ere I saw Elba” are all palindromes.
Paraprosdokian – Paraprosdokian (pair-uh-prahz-DOHK-ee-in) is a figure of speech wherein a sentence or phrase takes an unexpected twist, leading to a surprising—and often humorous—ending. Paraprosdokians use the element of surprise to upend audience expectations and create a humorous or dramatic effect.
Pun – A pun (PUHn) is a type of word play that humorously exploits the different possible meanings of a word or the fact that some words sound alike but have different meanings.
Repetition – As a literary term, repetition (reh-pih-TIH-shun) refers to deliberately repeating sounds, words, and phrases within a piece of literature for the purpose of creating an intended effect. The point may be to rouse the reader, slow a reader down create rhythm, or make a passage easier to remember.
Simile – Simile (SIH-muh-lee) is a figure of speech that directly compares two dissimilar things. Similes are most commonly signaled by the words like or as. The term, which originated in the 14th century, stems from the Latin similis, meaning “similar” or “like.”
Superlative – Superlative (soo-PURR-luh-tihv), from the Latin for “extravagant,” refers to an adjective or adverb of the highest degree.
Synecdoche – Synecdoche (sih-NECK-duh-key) is a figure of speech where part of something stands in for the whole thing (like using wheels to refer to a car) or, less frequently, when a whole thing stands in for part of it (society used to reference high society).