Politics Among Nations

Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace is a landmark book of political science written by German American scholar Hans Morgenthau (1904-1980). In addition to mastering political science and diplomacy, Morgenthau was a lawyer who specialized in international law, and he also served as an advisor to the presidential administrations of both John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. The book is widely considered to be a founding text of classical realism, a theory of international relations that argues that every nation is primarily motivated by its own self-interest and its desire to either maintain or increase its power.

First published in 1948, the text went through multiple revised and expanded editions. This guide refers to the sixth edition, which was revised by Kenneth W. Thompson and published in 1985 by Alfred Knopf.

Content Warning: The source material and guide feature depictions of racism and religious discrimination.

Summary

Hans Morgenthau begins by explaining the theory of political realism that lies at the heart of Politics Among Nations. Specifically, political realism is the idea that there is a fixed human nature and that, as a result of the inherent characteristics of humanity, people act out of self-interest and constantly pursue power or else seek to protect the power that they already have. The text argues that because individuals inherently behave this way, so, too, do nations. Based on this principle, how and why nations act the way they do can be understood through the “dual test of reason and experience” (4). Every action that nations take in the context of international relations is intended to maintain, show off, or increase power. Even seemingly benevolent actions, such as international aid or economic trade, are motivated in some way by the desire to either increase power or exercise power over other nations.

Morgenthau argues that nations draw their power from a number of factors, including natural resources, the ability to process such resources, the quality of diplomacy and political leadership, public morale, and innate national and cultural traits. Within the context of their relationships with each other, nations often try to increase and protect their own power by maintaining balances of power “for the purpose of preventing any one of them from becoming strong enough to threaten the independence” of the others (223).

Morgenthau sees the concept of balances of power as a driving force in European history. In his view, a balance of power between the various European states was not just a political reality but an intellectual and moral principle. However, balances of power are often unstable and are constantly shifting because the goals (and relative power) of nations change over time. Balances of power have become even more precarious in modern times, as the cultural and moral consensus that once united European nations has broken down. Also, the dominance of the United States and the Soviet Union—and the relative weakness of all other nations—has rendered balances of power much less effective in preserving peace.

The inability of international law and institutions to stop wars has become more of a problem in the modern era as the advancement of military technology spawns conflicts that prove to be deadlier for a greater number of civilians. Even worse, the invention and proliferation of nuclear weapons has intensified the struggle to prevent war and promote peace, elevating it to an existential level in which the very survival of the human species is at stake. Unlike domestic laws and courts run by civilians, international courts have no way to impose decisions and peacekeeping efforts on unwilling nations. Not only do international institutions like the Security Council of the United Nations lack the tools for enforcement, but there is also no shared ethical and moral consensus among nations. Instead, each nation’s own morality, goals, and issues drive its beliefs and actions. Even on issues that would have global support, like freedom and peace, “world public opinion splits into its national components” (286).

At the time in which the text is written, the world is a bipolar one, with the conflict between the two sole superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, dominating global politics. In this situation, as the pre-Cold War Soviet Union and the United States compete for the loyalty of other nations, propaganda has become more vital and powerful. With the threat of nuclear war, the failure of international law to preserve peace has become an existential issue. Even with international bodies like the League of Nations and the United Nations, Morgenthau contends that during this time, there is no reliable way to prevent war; the only way to ensure permanent peace is by establishing a state government, but even this solution is impossible under contemporary political and social circumstances, especially the continued competition between nations. Instead, Morgenthau argues that the best approach by far is diplomacy; as the most reliable tool for preventing wars, diplomacy alone can provide the foundation for a peaceful world state.