57 pages • 1-hour read
Privilege, Power, and Difference
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Chapters 2-3Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Chapter 2 Summary: “Privilege; Oppression, and Difference”
The author discusses the complexities of privilege, oppression, and the social consequences of difference. He begins by emphasizing that the issues around difference are deeply entrenched in the uneven distribution of power and privilege, a legacy that society has inherited and must consciously address. Johnson critiques the notion that differences themselves cause societal issues; instead, he argues that the real problem lies in how societal structures use these differences to maintain power imbalances.
Johnson challenges the assumption that people naturally fear difference, pointing out that curiosity and acceptance are often our initial responses to the unfamiliar. He introduces the “diversity wheel,” a conceptual tool that highlights key social characteristics like age, race, gender, and sexual orientation, which shape our social identities and impact how others perceive and treat us. He suggests a thought experiment where changes in these characteristics could drastically alter one’s social reality, which illustrates how deeply societal perceptions are embedded.
The chapter further explores the concept of social construction, particularly around race. Johnson discusses how racial categories are not inherent, but are instead created and maintained by societal forces to uphold certain power dynamics. He uses historical examples to show how definitions of race have shifted over time to accommodate the interests of those in power.
Johnson also addresses the construction of normalcy and disability, explaining how societal definitions dictate our understanding of what is considered “normal.” He highlights how disability is socially constructed through the language we use, which often reduces individuals to their disabilities alone, marking them as “other” and inferior. This labeling not only separates and excludes, but also diminishes the person to merely their disability, which promotes perceptions of them as passive, dependent, or even invisible.
Moreover, Johnson explains the concept of privilege and its unnoticed but huge impact on society. He begins by addressing the common reactions of denial and defensiveness that often arise when individuals are confronted with the advantages they have due to privilege—advantages based on race, gender, or other societal categorizations rather than personal merit or actions.
Johnson discusses two main types of privilege, as defined by Peggy McIntosh: “[U]nearned entitlements,” which are rights that should be available to everyone but are often restricted to specific groups; and “conferred dominance,” where one group has power over another. He gives examples to illustrate how these privileges operate invisibly in everyday life.
A crucial aspect Johnson emphasizes is the “luxury of obliviousness” (22), whereby privileged individuals often remain unaware of the advantages they possess simply because it seamlessly aligns with their normative experiences. He quotes James Baldwin to underscore this point: “To be white in America means not having to think about it” (22), which highlights how privilege allows certain groups to remain ignorant of the challenges faced by others.
Furthermore, Johnson explores the relationship between privilege and oppression, emphasizing that these are two sides of the same coin. He explains that for every privileged group, there is another group that is oppressed. This oppression is systemic and arises not from individual actions, but from the entrenched societal structures that benefit one group at the expense of another.
Johnson clarifies that feeling discomfort or burden within a privileged group does not equate to oppression. For instance, men may feel pressured by societal expectations to be the main providers or to suppress certain emotions; however, these experiences do not constitute oppression because the societal benefits men receive far outweigh these pressures. This distinction is crucial to understanding the dynamics of privilege and how it differs from mere discomfort or challenge.
However, Johnson notes that being part of a privileged group does not necessarily make one an oppressor on a personal level. Systemic privilege means that one’s group benefits from oppression, but this does not automatically reflect the individual actions or intentions of all members of that group. Johnson stresses the importance of recognizing these structural dynamics to address the root causes of inequality effectively.
Chapter 3 Summary: “Capitalism; Class, and the Matrix of Domination”
Johnson explains that racism, particularly white racism, is a relatively modern phenomenon that emerged concurrently with the rise of capitalism a few centuries ago. He asserts that this timing is not coincidental but rather deeply entwined with the economic benefits that racism provided in upholding the capitalist system.
Johnson supports his arguments by referring to the statistics which show that in the US, the top 10% of the population controls a vast majority of the available wealth, including almost all cash, land, business assets, and stocks and bonds. Additionally, the richest 20% of households receive more than half of all income, and the top 40% command 78% of the income. Consequently, the remaining 60% of households are left with less than a quarter of all income, which illustrates the high and increasing levels of economic inequality, both within American society and globally.
Johnson explores the limitations of social mobility within the American economic system and critiques the myth of the “American Dream.” He points out that, despite low unemployment rates, most newly-created jobs over recent decades have been low-paying and offer little prospect for advancement. Johnson also notes a significant shift in self-perception among the US population, with fewer people identifying as middle class and more as working class since 1964. He describes a shrinking middle class and a growing divide between the wealthy and everyone else, which has resulted in a society where upward mobility for some necessitates downward mobility for others, effectively creating a “zero-sum” situation, as described by economist Lester Thurow. This dynamic fosters feelings of threat among those struggling economically, which reinforces the cycle of poverty and limited class mobility.
Furthermore, Johnson explains the historical relationship between capitalism and racism in the United States, emphasizing both direct and indirect connections. Directly, the drive for profit in the capitalist system led to the exploitation of African enslaved persons as cheap labor on Southern plantations, especially following technological advancements like Eli Whitney's cotton gin. This exploitation allowed plantation owners to drastically increase cotton production and profits by minimizing labor costs, which resulted in a sharp increase in the enslaved population from 1 million in 1800 to nearly 4 million by 1860.
Johnson also discusses how this system of enslavement was supported by other businesses, which did not oppose enslavement on moral grounds but rather complained about the unfair economic advantage it provided to enslavers. Post-Civil War, the exploitation of labor continued in the form of tenant farming, which trapped freed Blacks in debt, and the use of Chinese and Japanese laborers under harsh conditions for railway and plantation work. Johnson also highlights the role of racism in the acquisition of land and resources through imperialistic actions supported by the ideology of white superiority.
Additionally, Johnson explores how capitalism perpetuates gender inequality and interacts with various forms of social privilege, resulting in what Patricia Hill Collins refers to as a “matrix of domination” (51). He illustrates how capitalism exploits women, not only in formal economies—where their labor is undervalued and underpaid across various sectors, from corporate offices to sweatshops—but also in domestic spaces.
Johnson then transitions into a broader discussion of how different forms of privilege and oppression intersect and influence individual experiences in society. For instance, a white middle-class lesbian might be unaware of issues of racial and class inequality due to her race and class privilege, despite experiencing gender and sexual orientation discrimination. Conversely, a working-class white man might feel marginalized economically, which can obscure the advantages he gains from racial and gender privilege.
Lastly, Johnson criticizes the oversimplified view of privilege as a linear or binary attribute that individuals either possess or do not. Instead, he argues that privilege exists within a dynamic and interconnected framework, where different axes of identity—race, gender, class, and sexuality—interact in complex ways. This interaction complicates the direct effects of each category of privilege and requires an in-depth understanding of how systemic inequalities perpetuate each other.
Chapters 2-3 Analysis
Johnson continues to explore complex social issues using a blend of literary and non-fiction devices. Johnson employs analogies and metaphors to simplify and emphasize his arguments. For instance, in Chapter 2, he compares societal fear of diversity to a child's natural curiosity about the unknown, arguing against the notion that fear of difference is innate. This analogy helps dismantle preconceived notions about human behavior towards diversity.
Johnson references scholarly works and cultural examples to support his arguments. In Chapter 2, he mentions Marshall Mitchell, a disability studies scholar, to illustrate how societal perceptions towards disabilities evolve with age due to social conditioning. He cites James Baldwin’s assertion about race in America to highlight how societal contexts shape our perceptions of race. Similarly, Johnson references the work of Peggy McIntosh, a renowned scholar on the topic of privilege. This situates Johnson’s ideas within a broader sociocultural and historical discourse, which enhances the depth of his analysis.
Moreover, Johnson invites readers to engage directly with the concepts he discusses by suggesting they apply the “diversity wheel” to themselves. This helps promote a deeper understanding of how social characteristics influence individual experiences. Johnson refers to two types of privileges to elucidate the complex nature of societal inequality, “unearned entitlements” and “conferred dominance,” which encourages readers to reflect on their own experiences and positions within these structures, inviting them to consider How Individuals Perpetuate or Challenge Systematic Inequalities.
Johnson challenges the naturalization of social constructs by providing historical and cultural contrasts, such as the different gender categories recognized by Indigenous tribes versus contemporary Western society. This examination of social constructs not only highlights their arbitrary nature, but also encourages readers to question and recognize the fluidity of such constructs in their environments. Similarly, in Chapter 2, he explains how an African woman or a Norwegian farmer may not consider their race a part of their identity until they interact with American societal structures that emphasize racial distinctions. These examples demonstrate how social contexts can transform personal and collective identities, reflecting The Impact of Social Categorization on Individual Experiences.
Johnson uses narrative examples to illustrate his points. For instance, he recounts the experience of an African American lawyer confronted by a young white attorney, using this story to highlight how “conferred dominance” manifests in everyday interactions by enabling privileged groups to act with an assumed authority. In Chapter 3, he discusses how capitalists employ workers and pay them less than the value of their output to maximize profits. These examples support his arguments about the exploitative nature of capitalism.
Furthermore, Johnson introduces the concept of oppression as inherently linked to privilege. In Chapter 2, he uses the work of Marilyn Frye to explain how oppression functions as a force that “presses” on certain groups, restricting their opportunities and freedoms—essentially the flip side of the “open doors” that privilege provides. This conceptual framing helps illustrate that privilege and oppression are two sides of the same coin, structurally embedded in society and affecting different groups in interconnected ways.
Another key literary device Johnson uses is historical contextualization to provide further insight into The Mechanisms of Privilege and Power in Society. In Chapter 3, by tracing the origins of racism alongside the rise of capitalism, he provides a foundational understanding of systemic issues. This historical approach helps readers understand that current societal structures have deep historical roots, which are essential for grasping why these structures persist today. For instance, Johnson links the expansion of capitalism with the onset of white racism, illustrating how economic motives often underpin racial discrimination. Johnson explains, step-by-step, how capitalism functions, the role of capitalists, and the economic pressures on workers. This methodical breakdown helps demonstrate the multifaceted nature of economic systems and their pervasive impact on social categories and privileges.
Similarly, Johnson breaks down the “matrix of domination” (51) by explaining how individuals can simultaneously inhabit privileged and unprivileged categories—such as a working-class white man who experiences racial and gender privileges but class-based disadvantages. He discusses how a middle-class white lesbian might navigate her intersecting identities, which simultaneously confer and restrict privilege. This approach invites readers to reflect on their positions within these intersecting systems while explaining the practical implications of theoretical concepts in everyday contexts.
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