Science and Human Behavior

Behaviorism is the scientific study of observable behavior, emphasizing environmental causes rather than internal mental states. As one of the leading figures of this movement, Skinner positions behaviorism as both a methodological approach and a worldview, capable of explaining human action through experimental analysis. In this book, behaviorism underpins every discussion, allowing Skinner to redefine psychology as a natural science rather than a field of speculation.

Conditioning is the process by which behavior is shaped, strengthened, or weakened through systematic interaction with reinforcement or punishment. Skinner distinguishes between classical conditioning, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, which pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned response, and operant conditioning, which emphasizes the role of consequences in shaping voluntary action.

In Science and Human Behavior, conditioning is not presented as a laboratory curiosity but as the central mechanism of all learning, from a child acquiring language to a society transmitting customs across generations. By framing conditioning as a universal process, Skinner argues that even abstract phenomena—such as morality, self-control, or cultural identity—can be explained in terms of conditioned responses to environmental contingencies. Importantly, conditioning provides the bridge between individual psychology and social systems: The same principles that train a pigeon in an experiment are, in Skinner’s view, at work in schools, workplaces, and governments. This expansive definition underscores the book’s central claim that human freedom and creativity are not opposed to conditioning but are themselves products of it.

Discrimination refers to the process by which an organism learns to respond differently to distinct stimuli. For example, a child may learn that speaking politely is reinforced at the dinner table but ignored in a playground setting. In Skinner’s analysis, discrimination is not a matter of conscious decision-making but of environmental cues shaping precise behavioral responses.

Environmental contingencies are the situational factors that determine whether a behavior is reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Skinner emphasizes that no act occurs in isolation; it is always embedded in a network of stimuli and consequences. For example, a student who raises her hand in class may be reinforced with praise in one setting, ignored in another, or even punished with ridicule by peers in a different context. Each outcome alters the likelihood that the behavior will recur, demonstrating how behavior depends less on internal will than on external conditions. Recognizing these contingencies allows both scientists and cultural designers to predict and influence human behavior more effectively.

Explanatory fictions are what Skinner regards as pseudo-explanations that rely on unobservable inner causes, such as “instinct,” “drive,” or “ego.” Skinner critiques such terms as circular reasoning because they merely rename behavior rather than explain it. By rejecting fictions, he insists on precise, functional accounts rooted in measurable contingencies of reinforcement.

Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer followed by reinforcement, leading to a decline in frequency. Skinner demonstrates this principle through both laboratory experiments and real-world examples, such as ignored social bids or ineffective cultural practices. Extinction is an essential counterpoint to reinforcement, revealing the fragility of behavior without sustaining consequences.

Free will, as traditionally conceived, posits that individuals can act independently of external causes. Skinner rejects this idea, arguing that what we call “choice” or “willpower” is simply the expression of environmental conditioning. By reframing free will as a folk belief, he advances a deterministic vision of human action that aligns psychology with the natural sciences.

Generalization describes the tendency for behavior learned in one context to carry over into similar situations. A student rewarded for neat handwriting in school may generalize that behavior to personal correspondence. Skinner notes that generalization both extends the usefulness of conditioning and introduces errors, as responses spread beyond their original contingencies.

Intellectual honesty is the practice of rejecting false explanations, accepting empirical evidence, and using precise language in describing behavior. For Skinner, this quality is essential to scientific progress because it prevents reliance on explanatory fictions or moralized interpretations. His text frequently models this honesty by rephrasing folk wisdom in behavioral terms, exposing what he regards as hidden contingencies. However, some of his language also inadvertently reveals his own biases, such as his sexist language towards women, which suggests that what is presented as intellectual honesty is not necessarily always neutral or unbiased.

Punishment is the application of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a positive one in order to decrease a behavior. While Skinner acknowledges its short-term effectiveness, he stresses its limitations, arguing that punishment often suppresses behavior without teaching alternatives. This critique informs his larger ethical project, which advocates for reinforcement over coercion in both personal and social contexts.

Reinforcement is the central mechanism of behaviorism, referring to any consequence that strengthens a behavior. Skinner distinguishes between positive reinforcement (adding a desirable stimulus) and negative reinforcement (removing an aversive one). Reinforcement explains not only simple laboratory responses but also complex human phenomena such as education, social approval, and cultural practices.