She Who Became the Sun

The Mandate of Heaven referenced in this novel is based on a real concept. Throughout several dynastic changes in Chinese history, the justification for this change is that the previous dynasty has lost the Mandate of Heaven (i.e., the right to rule), and the new dynasty has received it. This is not a tangible document or object but rather a concept that legitimized the transfer of power. In She Who Became the Sun, Parker-Chan chooses to describe the Mandate of Heaven as colored flames/light and uses it to symbolize power and/or the desire for power.

The most obvious example is the Prince of Radiance. Though a child, he speaks like an adult, is believed to remember his previous lives, and usually gives off an otherworldly presence. He is the most knowledgeable about the Mandate of Heaven and the ability it confers to its recipients—apart from manifesting flames/light, the Mandate makes them more attuned to the spirit world, so they can see ghosts. The Prince also seems to have some ability to prophesy, telling Ma and Zhu that the Prime Minister was never meant to rule, and neither is Zhu Chongba, hinting at the change in Zhu’s identity. The Prince is more of a symbolic leader than a literal one, mostly responsible for blessing ceremonies; however, his influence is great enough that the red flames of his Mandate inspire the name and headgear of the Red Turban rebels.

In contrast, the Great Khan’s Mandate manifests as a “weak blue flame” indicating the decline of the Yuan dynasty. The Khan is an uninspiring man with a face full of “lassitude” and a general disinterest in the state of his kingdom. He leaves most of the responsibilities to his officials and is viewed as an unworthy ruler by his subjects. The Third Prince, the Khan’s only surviving son, adds to this lack of power by the fact that he doesn’t have the Mandate at all, a prerequisite for the title of crown prince.

Zhu’s Mandate of Heaven, rather than a flame, manifests as a white radiance, a color unassociated with any other dynasty in Chinese history. This could function as a hint toward the name Zhu will eventually give to the dynasty she creates: “Ming” means “bright” or “light.” The strength of Zhu’s desire is evident throughout the novel, but the progression of her search for her Mandate most obviously begins when she suggests that Lady Rui rule Lu as a woman, a concept that is unheard of at the time. After Zhu is released from the Lu jail cells, she tries to find it but is unsuccessful. She tries a few more times, but only after Ouyang injures her and Ma and Xu Da nurse her back to health is she able to summon it. While she made consistent grabs for power throughout the book, it is only in Part 3 that she decides she wants to become emperor and gains the following to do so. Part 3 is also when Zhu’s desires are the strongest—not just for survival and power but also in terms of her search for loyal followers and her romantic feelings for Ma. These combine to make her stronger than she was and culminate in “a vision of the future [that] was the most beautiful thing Zhu had ever seen.”

As for the other two recipients of the Mandate, their roles and qualifications may be fleshed out in subsequent books. Zhang Shide’s Mandate manifests as an orange flame because “orange is the color of burning salt […] Salt is fire, and salt is life, and without it: even an empire falls to nothing” (333). This is a nod to the power that the Zhangs possess. As an influential merchant family, they control much of the trade and resources within the Yuan, including salt, to the point that without the Zhangs, the Yuan “might find itself in trouble” (330). Indeed, the Zhang’s navy is formidable, as is the family’s mastermind, Madam Zhang, who is powerful enough that even if she doesn’t possess the Mandate, she can rule in the shadow of the one who does. Zhang Shide is a competent soldier and assists Ouyang in his coup against the Prince of Henan and the Khan.

As for Lord Wang, though his Mandate has not yet been described, his possession of it is implied by the fact that he can see Ouyang’s ghosts. Already a capable bureaucrat, administrator, and politician—all useful skills for royalty—he has experience running his adoptive family’s estate. Though his family’s contempt for his work often hindered his achievements, his shrewdness allows him to exert his power in subtle ways, such as secretly aiding Ouyang’s coup. Esen’s death and his own severance of ties with his adoptive family may open the way for him to develop and grow.

Wearables—such as clothing, armor, and weapons—have many functions including broadcasting identity and as both literal and figurative protection. In the novel, they symbolize identity, status, and aspiration. Ouyang is the most obvious example. His living quarters are described as spartan and isolated, but he is vain about his armor, of which he owns several sets and wears constantly even in what are meant to be relaxed spaces like Esen’s quarters. When he is not wearing armor, he feels vulnerable, such as when he bathes. Ouyang’s armor is his protection, both from weapons in battle and from the humiliation and derision he faces from Yuan society. Constantly mocked as feminine or animal or thing, Ouyang’s armor is a reminder of his military prowess and masculinity. It serves as protection from Ouyang’s insecurities about his masculinity, especially as compared to Esen. Ouyang’s sword can be considered a phallic object, meant to substitute for what he views as his physical deficiencies. His hairstyle also conveys his desire to be considered Mongol, as he wears it in Mongol braids, rather than in a Nanren topknot. Though he doesn’t—can’t—forget his Nanren heritage, he often makes efforts to distance himself from it: during their duel, Zhu attempts to rile him using his Nanren heritage. When she asks him to deliver Chen’s message to the Prime Minister at Bianliang, he uses his archery prowess (a basic Mongol skill), saying, “Trust that I’m Mongol enough to do it” (374).

Lord Wang uses his clothing in a similar way but conveys the opposite effect. Of mixed Mongol/Nanren parentage, he is often also derided in Mongol society, especially since he rejects traditional Mongol traits of masculinity in favor of more Nanren skills, such as administration and scholarship. His features are also an obvious mix of Mongol and Nanren characteristics in a way that is impossible to hide. However, rather than assimilating into Mongol society the way Ouyang attempts to do, Wang flaunts his heritage, wearing Nanren-style clothing and a Nanren topknot. This also allows him to hide his insecurities behind the shield of his posturing. A final added benefit is the conveyance of a kind of open-mindedness—as Lord Wang often does business with diverse parties (Semu officials, Nanren merchants, and peasants and nobility alike). This obvious difference from his more short-sighted and traditional Mongol family may allow him to navigate his duties more easily.

Esen’s most distinctive style trait is his comfort with his masculinity. Extolled as the ideal Mongol man, he excels in battle and dismisses bureaucracy. He welcomes Ouyang’s company and demonstrates this through his relaxed demeanor and carelessness with his clothing. At one point, his clothing falls into disarray, revealing a hint of his physical masculinity. Though Esen doesn’t seem to notice or care, it reminds Ouyang of what he lacks and sends him metaphorically shrinking back into the protective shield of his armor. Esen’s comfort with his masculinity extends even to female spaces. When Ouyang seeks him out in the women’s quarters, he cares little for his mussed hair in Ouyang’s presence, a fact that makes Ouyang insecure and uncomfortable. However, Esen also has traits he is reluctant to acknowledge. He demonstrates that he cares about Ouyang a great deal, but when Wang implies that they are lovers, Esen rejects the idea, as it would damage his masculine image. If anything, Esen could be said to hide behind his masculinity even as he desires intimacy with Ouyang. Although Esen wears a variety of clothes, his vulnerability manifests in the act of removing his clothes or armor, rather than the items themselves. As a slave, Ouyang often helped Esen with his armor. Once he rises through the military ranks, he only does so twice: once when Esen is injured and Ouyang is desperate to get him medical assistance and once when he suggests Esen take him to the Spring Hunt. Both times include an air of intimacy that suggests more than just a master/servant or friendly relationship. But their insecurities and inner turmoil preclude them from acting on it. Esen’s final act is also an intimate one. Instead of fighting Ouyang, he submits to him (a feminine act) by removing his cuirass and accepting his death by Ouyang’s blade. By doing so, Esen removes his shield of masculinity and acknowledges his feelings for Ouyang, simultaneously understanding him for the first and last time. Ouyang returns this with his grief, an emotion experienced in the pure way he usually associates with Esen.

Zhu spends most of her time dressed like a monk, with or without armor. This is both her identity and protection: she was trained and ordained as a Buddhist monk, and her time at the monastery left an impression on her. She also acts as a monk in Anfeng when she’s not busy waging war, establishing the temple, and officiating rituals such as appeasing ghosts. At the same time, her monk garb also affords her protection: many citizens at the time practiced Buddhism, so as a monk she holds power and influence. Also, her clothing and status allow her to pass more easily as a male, which gives her both more freedom and more social flexibility.

Ma Xiuying, on the other hand, identifies strongly as a Semu and as a woman. She doesn’t have bound feet, hinting that she is Semu, and her physical appearance doesn’t allow her to pass as a man. The domestic (female) sphere is Ma’s world: though she is educated and proud of it, she is unambitious. She both chafes at and is resigned to her role and duties as a submissive wife, and she is maternal and enjoys domestic bliss. In that regard, her inability to pass as a male reflects her general disregard for them. Her only overtly political move is to wear red to proclaim her loyalty to Zhu—she chooses this color as a reminder of the Prince of Radiance.