The Art of Public Speaking

Chapter 16 introduces persuasion as a central function of public speaking and everyday communication. In this view, persuasion is portrayed not as manipulation but as the structured process of creating, reinforcing, or changing beliefs and actions.

The Importance of Persuasion

Persuasion is presented as a practical life skill that is essential for participating effectively in democratic processes, evaluating public messages, and advocating for ideas. Persuasive speaking extends beyond formal speeches, operating continuously in everyday interactions where individuals seek cooperation, agreement, or action from others.

Ethics and Persuasion

This section asserts that ethical responsibility is a fundamental aspect of persuasive speaking. Lucas warns against adopting deceptive practices such as misrepresenting evidence, manipulating statistics, or exploiting emotional appeals. Ethical persuasion requires one to maintain an audience’s trust through honesty, fairness, and respect for opposing viewpoints.

The Psychology of Persuasion

Persuasion is a psychological interaction between speaker and audience. Audiences are shown to engage in an internal mental dialogue, actively evaluating a speaker’s arguments, credibility, evidence, and emotional appeals. The section introduces the different degrees of persuasion, recognizing that listeners occupy positions ranging from opposition to support.

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact

This section distinguishes informative speeches from persuasive speeches on questions of fact. While both deal with evidence, persuasive factual speeches advocate for one particular interpretation of disputed or uncertain facts. The speaker’s role is likened to that of an advocate, as the person presents evidence to support a specific conclusion while addressing opposing interpretations.

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value

Questions of value are defined as judgments about what is right or wrong, good or bad, or ethical or unethical. Lucas explains that value judgments must be justified using clear standards, not personal preferences.

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy

This section focuses on persuasion that is aimed at deciding whether a specific course of action should be taken. Lucas differentiates between speeches that seek passive agreement and those that seek immediate action. The chapter introduces three core issues: need, plan, and practicality. Each of these must be addressed in any policy speech. Several organizational patterns are explained, including problem-solution, problem-cause-solution, comparative advantages, and Monroe’s motivated sequence, with the latter highlighted as being especially effective for motivating action.

Sample Speech With Commentary

The sample speech illustrates how principles of persuasive speaking operate in practice. Organized around a policy issue, the speech demonstrates how to establish need, present a workable plan, and argue for practicality using solid evidence and visual aids.

The chapter reflects a democratic and deliberative model of persuasion that is based on civic discourse; in this framework, speakers are expected to reason with audiences, not coerce them. The chapter’s insistence on ethical persuasion and structured argument remains especially relevant amid contemporary concerns about misinformation and emotional manipulation.

Chapter Lessons

• Persuasion is most effective when it is treated as a mental dialogue that requires speakers to anticipate resistance, acknowledge competing views, and respond to audience concerns.
• Ethical persuasion depends on maintaining trust, which means that accuracy, fairness, and restraint are core conditions for credibility and long-term influence.
• Different persuasive goals demand different structures; the act of conflating questions of fact, value, and policy weakens arguments by mismatching evidence, standards, and calls for action.
• In successful persuasion, shifting audience members slightly along a spectrum of belief can be a meaningful outcome.

Reflection Questions

• Think about a time when you tried to persuade someone and met resistance. How might your approach have changed if you had treated the situation as a dialogue and addressed opposing viewpoints?
• When you advocate for a position that you strongly believe in, where do you draw the line between persuasion and pressure? How do your choices about evidence, language, and emotional appeal reflect that boundary?

Rejecting claims of a single persuasive “formula,” Lucas presents persuasion as a process shaped by four interrelated elements: credibility, evidence, reasoning, and emotional appeal. Drawing on classical rhetorical foundations alongside contemporary communication research, the chapter explains why audiences accept or resist persuasive messages. Lucas also outlines how speakers can influence beliefs and motivate action in ethically responsible ways.

Building Credibility

The chapter begins by establishing credibility as a judgment formed by audiences. Credibility depends primarily on perceived competence and character, varying according to topic, audience, and context. By distinguishing among initial, derived, and terminal credibility, Lucas shows how a speaker’s trustworthiness can evolve during a speech. Practical strategies (e.g., clarifying qualifications, establishing common ground, and delivering ideas with fluency and conviction) are presented as essential for strengthening audience trust and receptiveness.

Using Evidence

With credibility established, the chapter turns to evidence, which is defined as supporting material (examples, statistics, and testimony) that is used to justify statements open to doubt. Lucas emphasizes that evidence is especially crucial in attempts to persuade skeptical or resistant audiences. The persuasive force depends on specificity, novelty, source credibility, and clear linkage to the speaker’s claims.

Reasoning

Four methods of reasoning (specific instances, principle, causal, and analogical) are explained as common tools in persuasive discourse. Alongside these methods, the chapter identifies common logical fallacies that undermine persuasion, focusing particularly on hasty generalization, false cause, invalid analogy, bandwagon appeals, slippery slope arguments, and ad hominem attacks.

Appealing to Emotions

Emotional appeal is presented as a legitimate and often necessary dimension of persuasion, particularly in speeches that address values or policy choices. Lucas explains how fear, compassion, pride, anger, and guilt can be ethically engaged through vivid examples, emotionally resonant language, and sincere delivery. Emotional appeals are supplements to evidence and reasoning, but in order to be used ethically, they must be relevant to the topic.

Sample Speech With Commentary

The sample speech demonstrates how credibility, evidence, reasoning, and emotional appeal operate together. To illustrate this, Lucas examines a policy speech that is organized with Monroe’s motivated sequence. The accompanying commentary highlights the speech’s effective adaptation to its audience, its structured organization, its ethical use of evidence, and its emotional engagement. This analysis reinforces the chapter’s view of persuasion as a deliberate, learnable craft.

Lucas’s approach to persuasion aligns with rhetoric textbooks of the same pedagogical tradition, such as Everything’s an Argument, which similarly frame argumentation as an ethical, audience-centered practice grounded in evidence, credibility, and emotional awareness. Lucas distinguishes his contribution by anchoring these principles in live public speaking.

Chapter Lessons

• Persuasion works through a combination of credibility, evidence, reasoning, and emotional appeal, not through a single technique or formula.
• A speaker’s credibility is shaped by an audience’s perception over time and can be strengthened or weakened by how one’s ideas are presented and supported.
• Evidence and reasoning must work together since facts persuade only when audiences understand how those facts justify a conclusion.
• Emotional appeals are most effective and ethical when they reinforce reasoned arguments rather than replacing them.

Reflection Questions

• Think about a persuasive speech or presentation that you have given in the past. How consciously did you manage your credibility with the audience?
• When evaluating a persuasive message that you strongly agreed with, how much of your acceptance came from the speaker’s reasoning and evidence? How much came from your trust in the speaker or their emotional impact?

Lucas frames special-occasion speeches as being integral to social rituals, arguing that such speeches help transform ordinary moments into significant events. These speeches are evaluated by how well they fit the occasion, the audience expectations, and the emotional tone required by the moment.

Speeches of Introduction

Speeches of introduction serve to prepare audiences by building interest, establishing credibility, and creating a welcoming environment. Lucas stresses that effective introductions are brief and carefully adapted to the occasion. The introducer’s supportive role is to ease the transition to the main speaker rather than drawing attention to oneself. Traditional techniques such as saving the speaker’s name for last build anticipation and signal respect for the occasion.

Speeches of Presentation

Speeches of presentation accompany the public giving of awards or honors and aim to explain why the recipient deserves recognition. Lucas encourages speakers to focus on achievements that are directly related to the award and to avoid offering an exhaustive biography. When appropriate, the speech may also explain the significance of the award itself or acknowledge others who were considered. The overall tone is celebratory and affirming and is designed to make the recipient’s accomplishments meaningful to the audience.

Speeches of Acceptance

Acceptance speeches respond to public recognition and are defined by gratitude, humility, and brevity. Lucas presents these speeches as opportunities to thank those who contributed to the achievement while maintaining proportion and restraint. Effective acceptance speeches avoid self-promotion and emphasize appreciation, shared effort, and respect for the audience and occasion.

Commemorative Speeches

Commemorative speeches honor people, institutions, or ideas, with the primary aim of inspiring audiences. Lucas highlights the central role of language in these speeches, noting that imagery, repetition, metaphor, and parallelism help evoke emotion. Successful commemorative speeches capture the essence of their subjects, investing the occasion with dignity, meaning, and emotional resonance.

The chapter frames public speaking as a social ritual that reinforces shared values and collective identity. Lucas adopts a normative view of rhetoric, in which speakers maintain restraint, appropriateness, and linguistic control. This approach reflects an institutionally grounded understanding of ceremonial speech that is shaped by tradition.

Chapter Lessons

• Special-occasion speeches succeed when they serve the meaning of the event rather than the speaker’s personal goals.
• Brevity, accuracy, and adaptation are not optional in ceremonial speaking; they are signs of respect for the audience and the occasion.
• Recognition speeches gain power through selectivity, focusing on representative achievements.
• Commemorative speaking depends on careful language choices that elevate shared emotions without drifting into clichés.

Reflection Questions

• Think about a ceremony that felt especially meaningful. What role did the speeches play in shaping that experience?
• When speaking in ceremonial settings, how do you decide between personal expression and adherence to tradition? What risks or responsibilities come with that choice?

Chapter 19 opens by establishing that online speaking is a distinct communicative situation with its own constraints and demands.

Kinds of Online Speeches

This section distinguishes between two primary forms of online speeches: recorded and real-time. Recorded online speeches are prepared in advance, delivered once, and then uploaded for later viewing; examples include TED Talks and online speech courses. These speeches closely resemble traditional classroom presentations, with minimal adaptation beyond recording considerations. However, real-time online speeches are created specifically for live online audiences and require significant adaptation. Speakers are typically seated, communicate through webcams, and integrate content, delivery, and visual aids within a mediated setting. Understanding this distinction is essential, as real-time online speeches demand greater attention to audience engagement, pacing, delivery, and technological competence.

Guidelines for Online Speaking

Lucas outlines practical guidelines to help speakers succeed in online settings. He emphasizes controlling the visual environment and recommends considering the background, lighting, and framing. Eye contact and personal appearance are also important factors. The chapter states that the implicit informality of an online setting is no excuse for engaging in an unprofessional presentation, as one’s visual cues strongly influence one’s credibility. Speakers are also advised to adapt their nonverbal communication, as gestures, posture, and eye movements are magnified on camera. Adjusting pacing becomes critical because online audiences are more prone to distraction; Lucas recommends varying visuals and maintaining a brisk tempo to help sustain the audience’s attention.

The Technology of Real-Time Online Speeches

This section addresses the technological responsibilities of online speakers, particularly in real-time contexts. Speakers must select appropriate software platforms, understand their features, and ensure compatibility with audience expectations. Beyond basic connectivity, presenters may need to manage screen sharing, visual aids, chat functions, or polling tools. The chapter stresses that technological fumbling undermines speaker credibility and that software mastery is therefore a communicative obligation.

Have a Backup Plan

Recognizing the unpredictability of technology, Lucas emphasizes the necessity of backup planning and acknowledges that even well-prepared speakers can encounter technical failures beyond their control, such as connectivity loss or platform crashes. The chapter offers multiple contingency strategies, including shifting to audio-only delivery, sharing outlines or documents, recording the speech for later viewing, or rescheduling if needed. Having a backup plan signals professionalism, foresight, and respect for the audience’s time.

Sample Speech With Commentary

The sample speech demonstrates how persuasive principles from earlier chapters can be successfully adapted to a real-time online setting. The commentary highlights effective control of the visual environment, confident use of technology, clear organization, and strong audience adaptation.

The chapter speaks directly to the post-pandemic normalization of remote and hybrid communication, in which online speaking has become structurally embedded in academic, professional, and civic life. Lucas’s emphasis on visual credibility, disciplined delivery, and technological readiness highlights the heightened demands of persuasion in digitally mediated, distraction-rich contexts.

Chapter Lessons

• Effective online credibility depends on how well speakers manage visual space, technology, and presentation conditions.
• Online speaking requires advance planning for issues such as technical failure, environmental disruption, and audience disengagement.
• Audience attention in digital settings is inherently unstable.
• Standards of professionalism in online speaking reflect institutional norms that may advantage some speakers while limiting others.

Reflection Questions

• Looking back at your own online presentations, how did factors outside your control shape how confident or credible you felt as a speaker?
• How did speaking to a camera affect your sense of connection, confidence, or authenticity?