The British Are Coming: The War for America, Lexington to Princeton, 1775-1777

From December 24 to 26, 1776, Trenton, New Jersey, was occupied by around 1,500 Hessian troops, weary from months of campaigning and billeted throughout the village. Colonel Johann Gottlieb Rall commanded the garrison, supported by limited reinforcements and vigilant patrols. Despite “reports of rebels massing across the river” (618) and small rebel raids, Rall dismissed concerns about a major attack. In New Brunswick, General Grant downplayed reports of enemy buildup across the Delaware, believing Washington would not attempt a crossing in winter.

On December 24, General George Washington finalized plans for a surprise assault. At this time, the physician Benjamin Rush witnessed for himself Washington’s “glum demeanor and his distracted doodling” (623). Agreeing with his lieutenants that a decisive strike was needed, Washington plotted “a bold lunge into the enemy’s flank” (624). His army of about 6,100 effective troops, bolstered by militia, was to cross the Delaware in three columns and converge on Trenton with roughly 5,000 men. Washington’s main force would lead the assault from the north with 2,400 troops, artillery, and Durham boats manned by experienced men. Supporting columns under Generals Cadwalader and Ewing were assigned to cross farther downstream.

Preparations included gathering supplies, coordinating transportation, and rallying morale with Thomas Paine’s newly published “febrile essay” (627), American Crisis No. 1. On Christmas night, Washington’s column began its river crossing eight miles above Trenton. Despite harsh conditions—ice, snow, sleet, and cold—the main force completed the crossing by early morning. The other two columns failed to cross due to “utterly impassable” ice (628), leaving Washington’s troops to proceed alone. At 4:00 am on December 26, the American force began its march toward Trenton. Washington divided his force into two prongs: Greene’s division approached from the north, and Sullivan’s division advanced from the northwest. Despite freezing weather and poor conditions, the troops pressed forward, reaching the outskirts of Trenton around daybreak.

The battle began shortly after 8:00 am when an American patrol engaged a Hessian outpost. Greene’s troops quickly advanced into town, supported by “the distant rumbling of cannonading” (630). Sullivan’s column simultaneously struck the southern end, completing the encirclement. The Americans overwhelmed Hessian positions with coordinated musket and cannon fire. Rall, caught unprepared, attempted to mount a counterattack but was soon mortally wounded. His troops, demoralized and surrounded, were driven back into town and eventually forced to surrender. Rall’s death and the disarray among Hessian forces led to what Washington described as “a glorious day for our country” (634). One Hessian regiment attempted to flee south across the Assunpink Creek but was blocked and forced to surrender after heavy fire. In all, around 900 Hessians were captured, with additional casualties numbering over 100 killed or wounded. American losses were minimal, with only a dozen killed or wounded, though many suffered from exposure and exhaustion.

Washington, recognizing the risks of staying in enemy territory, quickly withdrew his army and prisoners across the Delaware to Pennsylvania. Hessian prisoners were marched to various holding sites in Pennsylvania, many eventually settling there. The British command was shocked. General Grant blamed the Hessians, while others pointed fingers at Rall, citing his failure to fortify or retreat. Rall, who died the following day, was buried in Trenton. Morale soared in the Continental Army and across the colonies. Washington’s reputation was significantly restored, and Congress granted him “autocratic powers for six months” (638). Officers like Henry Knox were praised and promoted. The victory at Trenton was widely celebrated, helping to reverse American fortunes during a time of crisis.

George Washington returned to Trenton on December 30, 1776, after crossing the Delaware with part of General Sullivan’s division. He set up headquarters near where the Hessian commander Rall had been killed days earlier. With enlistments set to expire the next day, uncertainty hung over how many men would remain. It took the troops two days to cross the icy river. Encouraged by the recent victory at Trenton, Washington decided to “stay on the offensive” (640). General Cadwalader had crossed into New Jersey with militia and found the British retreating. Colonel Reed and Cadwalader urged Washington to act swiftly. Despite offers of money, shoes, and promotions, many soldiers declined to reenlist. Washington ultimately persuaded thousands to remain, raising the army’s strength to over 7,000, many of them Pennsylvanians.

Robert Morris sent cash and wine to fulfill promised bounties. Washington also dispatched Colonel Reed and the Philadelphia Light Horse Cavalry to scout Princeton, New Jersey, capturing and interrogating a dozen British dragoons who revealed British plans for an upcoming assault. A war council on January 1 decided to hold ground in Trenton. Washington positioned the army defensively along the Assunpink Creek, setting up artillery and entrenchments. On January 2, Cornwallis arrived in Princeton with reinforcements and planned a direct assault on Trenton with 9,000 troops, “bent on avenging the recent humiliation” (646). His forces marched slowly due to bad roads and skirmishes with American riflemen. Colonel Hand’s Pennsylvania troops, ordered to “retard the march of the enemy” (649), delayed the British advance with running engagements along the road to Trenton, finally falling back in the afternoon.

As British and Hessian forces reached Trenton, they faced sharp resistance. Washington ordered Colonel Hitchcock’s brigade to cover the retreat across the Assunpink bridge, which became a bottleneck. Some troops swam the creek to escape. Washington directed troops across the bridge, reinforcing the defenses. Knox’s artillery—”perhaps the heaviest that had ever been fired in the New World” (651)—helped repel multiple British assaults on the bridge, inflicting heavy casualties and forcing a British retreat by evening. Despite pressure to attack overnight, Cornwallis postponed action until morning. Washington, realizing the risk of being outflanked or surrounded, held a night council in which he resolved to bypass the British and strike Princeton. Using local guides, the American army quietly departed at 1:00 am on January 3, leaving behind decoys to deceive the British. Frozen ground enabled artillery to move quickly.

By dawn, Washington’s force was near Princeton. He split the army: Sullivan’s column would attack from the south and Greene’s division would block the road from Trenton. British Colonel Mawhood, leading part of a column heading to join Cornwallis, spotted the Americans and reversed direction to fight. Washington sent General Mercer to intercept what he thought was a small patrol. Mercer’s troops collided with Mawhood’s force near the Clarke farm and “scarlet stains spread in the snow” (658). In the ensuing fight, Mercer was badly wounded and mistaken for Washington. Colonel Haslet and others were killed. Mercer’s men were routed and Cadwalader’s brigade faltered under fire but was rallied by Washington. Reinforcements, including Hitchcock’s brigade and Hand’s riflemen, turned the tide.

Mawhood ordered a retreat. Some British fled toward Maidenhead; others toward Pennington. Washington pursued briefly before turning toward Princeton. In the town, some British barricaded themselves in Nassau Hall. After a short artillery bombardment, they surrendered. Roughly 200 British soldiers surrendered. The Americans seized supplies and demolished the bridge at Worth’s Mill to block British reinforcements. Washington chose not to push on to New Brunswick, as his men were “exhausted, cold, and hungry” (662). Instead, he marched northwest, reaching Somerset Court House by nightfall. Cornwallis, still in Trenton, discovered on the morning of January 3 that the Americans had vanished. Pursuing, he and his men found only smoldering ruins and frozen bodies. British losses were 450; American casualties were estimated between 60 and 70.

General Mercer died on January 12. American doctors, including Benjamin Rush, treated the wounded from both sides. Cornwallis retreated to New Brunswick, abandoning plans to campaign in New Jersey. He feared the forthcoming winter would “prove insuperable” (666). Washington’s army entered Morristown on January 6. There, they rested, resupplied, and fortified their position for winter. Washington remained focused on continuing the war effort, requesting reinforcements and warning that without permanent troops, the army would dwindle. He emphasized that the recent victories would mean little without sustained support. Though the army faced challenges—cold, disease, and desertion—Washington’s leadership helped restore morale. The winter campaign of 1776-1777 had shifted momentum “gloriously” in favor of the American cause (669).

In early 1777, England witnessed the execution of James Aitken, known as John the Painter, who was hanged in Portsmouth before a crowd of 20,000. Aitken, a Scottish-born house painter turned criminal and arsonist, had attempted “to incinerate the king’s naval yards in hopes of fatally weakening the Royal Navy” (670) and bringing sympathy for the American cause. He had previously traveled to Paris and met with American envoy Silas Deane, who allegedly supported his plans. Aitken set a major fire in the Portsmouth rope house in December 1776, causing £20,000 in damage, then tried but failed to strike again in Plymouth and later burned warehouses in Bristol. He was arrested in January 1777, tried, convicted, and executed with spectacle. His body was tarred and displayed for decades as a warning to rebels.

King George III remained committed to the war. Britain’s economy remained stable, bolstered by a strong wheat crop and war contracts. The king pursued intellectual and domestic interests; the royal family expanded. Yet, military needs increased, with large naval forces maintained and further expansion underway. So far, the revolution expenses “totaled £15 million and were escalating rapidly” (674). The king received news of American defeats with optimism in December 1776, expecting the imminent fall of Philadelphia. But in February 1777, news of the stunning American victories at Trenton and Princeton dashed those hopes.

General William Howe requested more troops and ships, revealing discontent among his officers, including disputes with Generals Clinton and Percy. Major Charles Stuart and Colonel Allan Maclean acknowledged that the Americans had “outgeneraled” (676) the British despite Britain’s larger numbers. London recognized key failures in the war’s conduct, from poor coordination to inadequate control of territory and sea-lanes. General Carleton had secured Canada but failed to connect with forces to the south; Howe held only limited ground around New York and Rhode Island. The navy, despite significant presence, could not fully control American waters. Fear of French and Spanish intervention grew, prompting expanded shipbuilding and impressment of sailors. A “naval arms race” (677) had begun.

British leadership underestimated American resolve and misunderstood the political and emotional force behind the rebellion. While Lord Germain expressed hope that rebel morale would collapse, thinkers like Thomas Paine and Adam Smith recognized the depth of American determination and vision. Parliament suspended habeas corpus in early 1777, giving the government more power to detain individuals without trial for six years, in violation of “what had been considered a fundamental right under English law” (678). King George saw his mission as divinely ordained and maintained that his policies served the happiness and liberty of all subjects. He admitted to possible errors but attributed them to intellectual failings, not ill intent.

As spring approached, the American campaign season paused. In two years, more than 450 battles and 90 naval engagements had occurred, with nearly 9,000 American casualties. Despite military inexperience, American forces had proven resilient. Washington’s army survived on speed, marksmanship, and support from the population. Militias, while unreliable for extended campaigns, played vital roles in local defense and intelligence. Washington, criticized at times for poor judgment, nonetheless adapted, learned, and maintained the confidence of both Congress and the public. He showed “a gift for improvisation and the deft escape” (680). His leadership style acknowledged Americans’ resistance to control and emphasized persuasion.

Though the war was far from over, American leaders and soldiers remained committed. Personal sacrifices and the ideal of liberty motivated men like Seth Pomeroy and Samuel Holden Parsons, who called on their sons to continue the fight if they fell. Revolutionary turmoil would persist, dividing families and communities. Yet Americans found solace in the belief that their struggle would inspire future generations. A sentiment recorded in the 2nd New York Regiment’s orderly book captured this hope: “The rising world shall sing of us a thousand years to come / And tell our children’s children the wonders we have done” (681).