The British Are Coming: The War for America, Lexington to Princeton, 1775-1777

In October and November 1776, General Washington established his headquarters at the Roger Morris mansion in Harlem Heights, overseeing the half of the New York region still under American control. Despite a temporary lull in combat, Washington was anxious and disheartened after recent losses on Long Island and in New York City. His army of 31,000 suffered from sickness, desertion, and discipline problems, with only half the men fit for duty. Dysentery and typhus ravaged the camps, while poor sanitation exacerbated the spread of disease. Surgeons pleaded for supplies and reinforcements. Thievery was so rampant that John Adams told his wife that he was “ashamed of the age” (524) in which he lived.

Washington was frustrated with the militia’s unreliability and urged Congress to form a “a disciplined, properly compensated army” (525). In a detailed letter to President Hancock, he argued for proper enlistment incentives and longer commitments. Meanwhile, the British Royal Navy resumed activity on the Hudson River on October 9, with ships enduring heavy American fire but ultimately breaking through American river obstructions, rendering Washington’s river defenses ineffective. David Bushnell’s submarine, the Turtle, was among the casualties.

General Howe, commanding British forces, adopted “a more cautious approach” (528) despite his numerical and tactical advantage. On October 12, he launched “a modest flanking move” (529) toward Frog’s Neck, attempting to envelop Washington’s army. However, the landing site was poorly chosen, and the Americans repelled the British advance. American General Charles Lee arrived on October 14, appearing “like a conquering hero” (531). He convinced Washington to retreat north into Westchester, abandoning Harlem Heights. On October 18, British troops shifted to Pell’s Point, where American Colonel John Glover’s brigade of 750 men held off “untold thousands of approaching enemies” (533) with well-coordinated volleys before retreating.

Howe pursued slowly, impeded by poor terrain, a large baggage train, and a weakened Hessian division suffering from disease and “persistent indiscipline” (536). British and Hessian soldiers plundered the countryside, angering civilians and alienating potential loyalist supporters. By October 28, both armies converged at White Plains. Howe launched a partial assault on the American right flank, capturing Chatterton Hill. After two days of heavy rain, Washington withdrew further to North Castle, avoiding another engagement. In spite of this latest retreat, the army was “in no way disheartened” (542).

The American army began reinforcing Fort Washington in upper Manhattan, despite doubts about its defensibility. Washington deferred to General Nathanael Greene, who increased the garrison to over 3,000 men. In spite of his apparent lack of experience, Greene had become, according to Henry Knox, “equal in military knowledge to any general officer in the army” (545). British deserters and captured American correspondence revealed the fort’s weaknesses to General Howe. On November 15, the British demanded the fort’s surrender, but Colonel Robert Magaw refused, citing “the most glorious cause that mankind ever fought in” (550).

On November 16, British and Hessian forces attacked from multiple directions. After fierce fighting and American losses on all fronts, Magaw surrendered the fort, whereupon “abuse and plunder commenced” (555). Nearly 3,000 Americans were taken prisoner; 59 were killed and 96 wounded. Howe’s losses included 77 killed and 381 wounded. American prisoners were marched to New York, where many would die in captivity due to “barbaric treatment” (556). Washington, watching from across the Hudson, was deeply affected by the loss. Regional tensions between the Americans intensified as many recalled Greene’s lack of experience.

Following the fall of Fort Washington, British troops crossed into New Jersey. On November 20, they landed at Lower Closter and scaled the steep Palisades to advance on Fort Lee. General Greene hastily evacuated, abandoning artillery and provisions. Washington met the retreating troops at Hackensack. With just 3,000 disheartened soldiers and no entrenching tools, he ordered a further withdrawal. The British captured Fort Lee with little resistance, seizing large quantities of supplies. American forces retreated through New Jersey, pursued by the British. Washington instructed General Lee to bring reinforcements from New York. The campaign had turned decisively against the Americans. They had lost thousands of men and significant territory. Morale was low among the “weary, beaten rebels” (560).

Despite these setbacks, Washington remained committed to the cause. He crossed the Hackensack River and continued retreating through New Jersey. On November 22, he sent a message to General Lee urging immediate support. American soldiers, cold, tired, and ill-equipped, pressed southward. British forces looted farms, while rebel stragglers found brief shelter in Hackensack. The Continental Army, though battered, remained intact. American troops “kept faith with their cause, with one another, and with those generations yet unborn” (561). General Greene wrote to his wife expressing hope and determination.

In late November 1776, Benjamin Franklin sailed for France aboard the Reprisal, a fast American warship repurposed for battle. Despite his advanced age and deteriorating health, Franklin agreed to the mission assigned by Congress “in hopes of signing ‘a treaty with his most Christian majesty,’ King Louis XVI” (563), and pressing the French for open support against Britain. Aboard with him were his grandsons Temple and Benny, the elder (Temple) serving as his secretary. Franklin’s estranged relationship with his loyalist son William, who had recently been jailed, added emotional strain to the journey. Many “similar estrangements, heartbreaking and brutal, were tearing apart American families from Maine to Georgia” (565).

Captain Lambert Wickes commanded the Reprisal, already distinguished in battle. As the ship departed from the Delaware River with Franklin and 35 casks of indigo to finance the mission, Wickes was ordered to sail to Nantes. However, upon spotting British merchant ships, Franklin authorized their capture. Two brigs, George and LaVigne, were taken. These small victories were rare for the struggling Continental Navy, which remained “outgunned, outmanned, and outsailed” (565) by Admiral Howe’s British fleet. While American naval efforts were limited, privateers had taken hundreds of British merchant ships, significantly disrupting trade and raising insurance costs.

By early December, bad weather slowed Reprisal. Franklin and his grandsons were rowed ashore to Auray, then traveled by coach to Nantes. Franklin arrived on December 7 and was received with admiration and support. After a week, he departed for Paris. Although he had revealed no official mission, “a thousand conjectures” (568) abounded regarding his purpose. The British ambassador in Versailles, Lord Stormont, tracked his movements closely. Paris at the time was vibrant, chaotic, and full of “informants, agents, and operatives” (571). Franklin’s destination, ultimately, was a discreet Parisian mansion operated by a Spanish-fronted company, Roderigue Hortalèz et Cie, set up to funnel French military supplies to America. The operation was masterminded by Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, a former watchmaker, courtier, playwright, and arms dealer. Beaumarchais was “a rabid enthusiast for the American cause” (573), working closely with French Foreign Minister Vergennes to secretly supply the rebels with arms while avoiding open conflict with Britain.

France, still smarting from its losses to Britain in the Seven Years’ War, saw opportunity in America’s rebellion to weaken a colonial rival with a drawn out, expensive conflict. While King Louis XVI was initially cautious, he slowly warmed to the idea of aiding the insurgents, encouraged by Beaumarchais and Vergennes. To circumvent British detection, Beaumarchais arranged covert shipments of weapons, including thousands of muskets and cannons. Some arms began departing France in secret, but British intelligence quickly caught on, and Lord Stormont lodged protests. In December, Beaumarchais loaded three ships in Le Havre with supplies for America. When the British ambassador made a formal complaint, France publicly ordered a stop to the shipments, though the embargo was lifted privately after Beaumarchais’s intervention. Only one ship, the Seine, was intercepted; others eventually reached America, though some arms required repair.

Meanwhile, Silas Deane, the first American envoy in France, coordinated with Beaumarchais and distributed officer commissions to numerous European volunteers. Among them was the 19-year-old Marquis de Lafayette, appointed a major general. Deane, frustrated with Congress’s delays, pushed for more aid and tobacco shipments to repay Beaumarchais. He also promoted American virtue and issued military prospects “willy-nilly” to French officials (577), including Lafayette. Franklin arrived in Paris on December 21, staying at the Hôtel d’Entragues. He immediately attracted widespread attention and admiration from French society. Parisians viewed him as a symbol of simplicity, wisdom, and democratic virtue. He received fan mail, was celebrated in salons, and his image adorned snuff boxes and fashion items. Franklin had become “the American, a slightly paunchy embodiment of his country” (579).

On December 23, Franklin sent a formal request to meet Vergennes, who received him privately five days later, joined by Deane and newly arrived American envoy Arthur Lee. Franklin proposed a treaty of amity and commerce. Vergennes urged discretion and stressed that official support must be delayed. On January 5, Franklin requested warships and supplies, arguing that France and Spain stood to benefit strategically by aiding the American cause. He “cheerfully predicted English ruination” (581). Although Franklin was well received, French officials remained cautious. British spies monitored developments while France, unready for war, pursued a policy of “watchful waiting” (583). Franklin recognized that France would only commit fully if America could demonstrate military success. Days later, the French king quietly agreed to loan two million livres to America. Franklin had made a favorable impression, but the ultimate goal of a full alliance remained uncertain.