The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory

British scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) worked in physics, astronomy, mathematics, and theology (among other disciplines). He was a vital part of the Scientific Revolution that spanned from the late Middle Ages to about 1800 and was foundational in developing classical physics. Newton’s three laws of motion and his theory of universal gravitation revolutionized the general understanding of physical motion, both on the small and large scale. He first presented these theories in his book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), published in 1687. He used his mathematical formula for gravity to accurately calculate the enormously complex motions of things such as tides, comets, and the cycle of the equinoxes. In addition, he is credited (along with German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz) with the development of calculus (More, Louis Trenchard. Isaac Newton, a Biography. Dover Publications, 1934).

German physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955) is probably the best-known figure in physics and perhaps all of science. Einstein was born in the German Empire to an Ashkenazi Jewish family. He moved to Switzerland in 1895 to pursue higher education and renounced his German citizenship in 1896, eventually acquiring Swiss citizenship, which he kept the rest of his life. In 1900, he graduated from the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich but could not find a teaching position and began working at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern in 1903. While working at the patent office, he devised some of his most famous theories.

He came to prominence in 1905 with the publication of four of his most famous papers, which addressed the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and equivalency of mass and energy. During this time, he successfully completed his dissertation for a PhD from the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin, where he joined several science academies, eventually becoming director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. He regained his German citizenship, while also keeping his Swiss citizenship. While in Berlin, he wrote and published his most influential work, which outlined his general theory of relativity. This theory radically altered accepted thought in physics.

In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the photoelectric effect. Ironically, the Nobel committee (and many scientists) had not yet accepted his theories of special or general relativity, which were the far more groundbreaking theories of his career. While on a speaking tour in the US in 1933, Einstein learned of Hitler’s rise to power as chancellor. As a prominent Jew, he could not safely return to Germany. He learned that the Gestapo had raided his home in Berlin several times in 1933 while he and his wife were away. Although he and his wife returned to Europe and made it as far as Belgium, they ultimately decided not to enter Germany. Instead, Einstein renounced his German citizenship for the second and final time. Homeless, he lived briefly in Belgium and London before he was offered a teaching position at Princeton University in New Jersey, where he took up residence in 1935 and remained until his death.

Einstein was infamously one of several scientists who wrote a letter warning President Roosevelt about the dangers of German military might and scientific development and urging him to fund the building of the atomic bomb. He later called this the greatest mistake and regret of his life. In 1955, he and 10 other intellectuals wrote a manifesto denouncing the dangers of nuclear warfare. Einstein spent the last years of his life opposing quantum mechanics and struggling to devise a unifying theory of physics (Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life and Universe, 2008).

German physicist Max Planck (1858-1947) reached the highest position of authority in the sciences in Germany and is likely the most famous German scientist after Einstein. He worked as a professor at the University of Berlin. When Einstein’s 1905 paper on special relativity was published, Planck was one of the first to recognize its brilliance and importance, and he championed Einstein’s work for the rest of his life.

Although Planck made many important contributions to physics, he remains most well-known as the progenitor of quantum theory. His work on subatomic processes, particularly the proportionality factor called Planck’s constant, was so revolutionary that a large series of units necessary for both quantum and string theory now bears his name.

Planck’s pro-war stance during World War I and his refusal to leave Germany when Hitler came to power in the 1930s made him the subject of criticism. However, he ultimately demonstrated opposition to the Nazi party during World War II. As president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (a prestigious German sciences academy), Planck avoided open conflict with the Nazi government while secretly helping many Jewish scientists continue their work. He resigned when the Nazi government took over the society. His son was arrested by the Gestapo in connection with an assassination attempt on Hitler and was later executed. Planck died shortly after the war ended (Stuewer, Roger H. “Max Planck.” Britannica Online).