49 pages • 1-hour read
The Rise of the Roman Empire
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Books 24, 31, 36, 39Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Book 24 Summary
Book 24 opens with a detailed comparison between two prominent leaders: Philopoemen and Aristaenus. While both were dedicated members of the Achaean League, their approaches to Roman power diverged significantly. Polybius describes Philopoemen as physically and mentally adept in war, and he praises Aristaenus for his skills in politics. Their differing stances revolved around how to handle Roman supremacy in Greece following Philip’s defeat. Aristaenus favored immediate compliance with Roman instructions, even advocating for the anticipation of Roman demands. However, Philopoemen insisted on evaluating Roman requests according to existing treaties and laws and rejecting those that were determined to be unjust.
Aristaenus defended his position by claiming that friendship with Rome could not be sustained by both resistance and diplomacy. He argued that when honor is unattainable, it is wise to pursue self-interest: “‘It is impossible,’ he said, ‘to maintain the friendship with Rome by holding out both the sword and the olive branch at once’” (518). Philopoemen responded by asserting that unchecked submission encourages tyranny and erodes sovereignty. He acknowledged Rome’s superior power while advocating for peaceful resistance.
Following this political discourse, Polybius turns his attention to events in Asia. A new conflict arose between Eumenes II of Pergamon and Pharnaces I of Pontus. Pharnaces rejected the agreed-upon peace treaty dictated by Rome, and sent his general to mobilize his forces to invade a Roman-held city. In response, Eumenes prepared for war and marched with his brother into the region. They then joined forces with Ariarathes IV, King of Cappadocia, and prepared their forces to battle Pharnaces.
As they encamped in Mocissus, they received news that Rome planned to send delegates to find a peaceful solution. Eumenes continued to prepare his troops with training, hoping to demonstrate self-sufficiency and foresight. Roman delegates went ahead of Eumenes’s army to discuss a deal with Pharnaces. However, Pharnaces continued to make more demands, and the Romans soon realized that Pharnaces had no intention of striking a deal.
Book 31 Summary
The book opens with Demetrius, the son of Seleucus, who was held hostage by Rome after the throne of Syria had been passed to his father. Demetrius was now 23 years old and appealed to the Roman Senate for release, emphasizing his Roman upbringing and personal connections to the Roman aristocracy. Though moved emotionally, the Senate denied his request. In contrast, the Senate accepted an audience with Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia, who sought to renew his alliance with the superpower. Based on favorable reports from previous Roman investigations, the Senate received Ariarathes warmly and renewed peaceful terms.
Demetrius, seeing his chances slipping, confided to his allies that he planned to escape. Despite advice to avoid a second failed appeal, he made another plea to the Senate, which was again denied. Helped by Polybius and his close companions, Demetrius staged a covert departure on a Carthaginian ship and sailed from Ostia. His escape was discovered five days later when it was no longer possible to pursue him.
Demetrius was not the only one seeking support from the Roman Senate. The younger Ptolemy arrived in Rome to contest a previous partition of Egypt made with his brother. He argued that he was coerced and requested Cyprus as compensation. The Senate agreed and sent delegates to implement the decision without war. The younger Ptolemy gathered mercenaries but was persuaded to disband them.
Polybius highlights other connected events across the globe. In Rhodes, the people recovered from a period of distress and sent envoys to Rome to secure possession of a city that had revolted and been besieged by the Caunians. Meanwhile, Gaius Gallus created turmoil in Asia by inviting public accusations against King Eumenes in Sardis. Though his actions were erratic, they led to greater sympathy for Eumenes among Greek states.
Book 36 Summary
Polybius reflects on his approach to historical writing. While he has included speeches elsewhere in his text, he declines to do so here, arguing that the historian’s job is to relay what was actually said rather than to display rhetorical skill. He argues that this is especially important while presenting a momentous event like the Third Punic War.
The narrative turns to the Roman decision to go to war with Carthage. The Romans had resolved to destroy Carthage, but waited for a pretext that would appear just to other nations. They valued the appearance of legitimacy in war, as it amplified the glory of victory and mitigated the shame of failure. Their internal debates on how the conflict would be perceived almost delayed their decision.
The people of Utica preemptively surrendered to Rome. This act removed any chance for Carthage to gain favor by surrendering first and placed them in a reactive position. Faced with no good options, the Carthaginian Senate resolved to send envoys to Rome to act in their best interest. The envoys arrived in Rome to find war already declared and Roman generals on their way to Africa. With no alternatives, they submitted Carthage.
Their surrender was total: All land, cities, inhabitants, rivers, harbors, temples, and even tombs passed into Roman possession. The Senate decided that the Carthaginians would be allowed to retain their laws, territory, and private property. However, this generosity came with conditions: Carthage was required to send 300 aristocratic hostages within 30 days and to obey all future Roman commands. Although most Carthaginians approved of the outcome, anxiety grew because there was no explicit mention of the city of Carthage itself.
Book 39 Summary
Polybius writes that he has completed his task and returned home from Rome. He views his historical work as a reaped harvest and hopes to be allowed to continue the same type of work in the future. He closes by asserting that it is important for those who study history to look at the world comprehensively, including the way different political systems interact with one another.
Books 24, 31, 36, 39 Analysis
The Rise of the Roman Empire does more than record events. Polybius offers a framework for understanding the deeper causes of political success and failure. These final books highlight the three interlocking themes in Polybius’s narrative, shifting focus from grand military campaigns to moments of diplomacy and internal political struggle.
This shift is exemplified in the theme Growth Through Discipline and Strategy. In Book 24, Polybius contrasts two Achaean leaders, Philopoemen and Aristaenus. His focus is not their military might but their political posture. Philopoemen’s insistence on maintaining legal integrity and measured resistance represents a kind of strategic discipline: He aimed to preserve the Achaean League’s dignity and autonomy without directly provoking Roman retaliation. Aristaenus, by contrast, adopted a more submissive stance, advocating preemptive compliance. Through their debate, Polybius explores different forms of political strategy, showing how discipline must extend beyond the battlefield into the realm of civic negotiation.
Book 31 highlights more direct depictions of leadership and planning. Demetrius’s escape from Rome is more than an act of boldness; it is carefully orchestrated with the help of Polybius and others. This is the first time in the narrative that Polybius takes himself out of the position of impartial observer and becomes an active participant in events. Demetrius’s escape reflects strategic timing and reliance on trustworthy allies. The narrative suggests that a government’s future rests on both its military might and the cultivation of morally and intellectually prepared leaders.
Each of these books also revisits Polybius’s central tension between chance (fortune) and earned success (virtue), reflecting The Balance of Fortune and Virtue. In Book 24, the renewed conflict between Eumenes II and Pharnaces shows how temporary power can appear to rest on luck, but Polybius emphasizes how Eumenes’s ability to find allies turns the situation in his favor. Meanwhile, Demetrius’s escape in Book 31 might be interpreted by some historians as fortunate, but Polybius is clear that his success rested on his planning, patience, and character.
Book 36 provides one of the most dramatic illustrations of the forces of fortune and virtue. Carthage’s submission to Rome could be read as a product of misfortune—Rome’s demands came unexpectedly and with overwhelming force. However, Polybius frames the moment to suggest that Carthage’s predicament was the result of earlier moral and strategic failings, and he is dismissive of those who sought the gods for answers: “Now if anyone had proposed that we should consult the gods to find out what we should say or do so as to increase our numbers and repopulate our cities, his advice would have been considered quite futile, since the cause of this situation was self-evident” (537-538). He rejects earlier historians’ attempts to align historical events with pure fate, arguing instead for a perspective of history that examines causes and effects as influenced by human decision.
As Polybius highlights the leadership and virtues that uphold Rome’s success, he brings his narrative into a larger context of The Cyclical Nature of History. Polybius’s theory of anacyclosis—the cycle of political evolution and decay—reappears implicitly in these books. Book 24 reveals how external dependence on Rome forced the Achaeans into choosing between resistance and submission. Philopoemen’s attempt to maintain dignity suggests a resistance to the cycle’s decline into dependency, but Aristaenus’s position reflects how smaller states are absorbed into the orbit of dominant powers.
Book 36 illustrates the final stage of this cycle for Carthage. Once a dominant power, Carthage is reduced to sending envoys to beg for mercy. These books may not feature the climactic battles of earlier volumes, but they are crucial to Polybius’s larger arguments. They show how states succeed or fail not only in war, but in character, strategy, and structure; how history repeats itself and political powers succumb to an inevitable cycle; and how fortune can be confronted with morality.
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