The Rise of the Roman Empire

Polybius dives deeply into Roman strategy and discipline to develop a thesis for why Rome was so successful in its campaign for domination. The Roman constitution mixes elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, which Polybius suggests accounts for its effectiveness He argues that the Roman constitution is balanced and avoids extremes: “Thus the whole situation remains in equilibrium since any aggressive impulse is checked, and each estate is apprehensive from the outset of censure from the others” (318). Each branch of the government plays a role in striking this balance. The consuls have monarchical powers over the military, but the Senate holds an aristocratic power over finances. The people, however, hold democratic power, making decisions about honors, crimes, and laws. Polybius compares Rome’s constitution to the constitutions of other governmental powers, determining that Rome’s is the best.

Polybius describes the Roman military system, which utilizes different classes of soldiers that are each uniquely and specifically trained. Polybius asserts that this highly organized system leads to Rome’s militaristic success. The Roman military is organized into camps, a technique that offers tactical advantages, as soldiers learn about specific roles and responsibilities in their specific fields.

When a plot against King Hieronymus of Syracuse nearly ended his reign, Hieronymus’s advisors encouraged him to write to Hannibal for support. Hannibal was gaining power and had struck an alliance with King Philip V of Macedon. It appeared as though Hannibal was the best positioned to take on Rome. Hieronymus hoped to form an alliance with Carthage against Rome.

Hieronymus asked Hannibal to sign a treaty, agreeing to assist him with militaristic forces on land and sea and with removing the Romans from Sicily. However, Hieronymus soon changed his mind when two other advisors encouraged him to seek total control over Sicily for himself. Knowing that the young king was unstable and easily persuaded, the Carthaginians continued with their original treaty, believing that Sicily was key to their success.

The Romans were angry and attempted to remind Hieronymus that he had signed a treaty with Rome. Hieronymus said he would uphold the treaty so long as Rome paid him back all the gold they had taken and returned all the gifts they had received from his grandfather. He also demanded that everything to the east of the river Himera belong to Syracuse. Rome refused, and Hieronymus prepared for war.

After Hieronymus was assassinated in a pro-Roman coup, the Carthaginian-aligned brothers Epicydes and Hippocrates rallied those with anti-Roman sentiments and took control of Syracuse, breaking the Roman alliance. Rome responded by sending land and sea forces to attack city walls on two fronts. The Roman armies were poised to win the fight, but they did not account for Archimedes, the Greek mathematician and inventor who was born in Syracuse and had developed the city’s defensive machinery.

Archimedes was responsible for designing long-range catapults and mangonels that could destroy Roman ships from a long distance. He also produced smaller, short-range weapons and cranes that could pluck ships from the water and overturn them. Every time the Roman military tried a new tactic, Archimedes found a way to rise to the challenge. Night attacks failed as Archimedes devised a way to eliminate soldiers at close range. When months of direct assaults on the city failed, Rome tried another strategy: Blockade. By surrounding the city, Rome hoped to starve Syracuse.

Polybius then turns his attention to Greece and criticizes historians who champion Philip V of Macedon, whom he feels exhibited an immense moral decline. He argues that historians have a responsibility to approach their subject matter with balance: “We should neither praise kings nor blame them without due regard for the truth (as has so often been done), but should always write of them consistently in the light of our previous statements, and in accordance with their conduct and policy” (369). Philip poisoned a trusted ally and won the cities of Lissus and Acrolissus by pretending to withdraw. In Italy, Hannibal continued to gain traction as he snuck his forces into the gates of the Roman-sieged city of Tarentum and overtook the city.