The Rise of the Roman Empire

The Achaean League was a term given to a federal union of city-states in Greece during the 3rd century BCE. While each city acted independently, they shared military, currency, and foreign policies, acting as a united front. Polybius was born into a prominent Achaean family and was proud of his heritage. He championed the Achaean League above the neighboring Aetolian League, believing that the Achaeans had a stronger political structure.

Like the Achaean League, the Aetolian League was a union of city-states in central Greece. Unlike their neighbors who emphasized diplomacy, Polybius writes that the members of the Aetolian League were known for their military aggression and chaotic organization. During the First Macedonian War, the Aetolians united with Rome against Macedon. Polybius is critical of the Aetolian’s alliance with Rome, which he felt was opportunistic and contributed to Rome’s eventual domination over the Greek world.

Anacyclosis is a term used to describe the governmental cycle theory developed by Polybius. This sophisticated model is one of the earliest forms of social theories: Polybius asserts that governments adhere to a predictable cycle, always devolving before restructuring again. In this cycle, monarchy always becomes tyranny, aristocracy always becomes oligarchy, and democracy always leads to mob rule. Then the cycle begins again. Polybius argues that Rome’s mixed constitution helps to stabilize this inevitable cycle, contributing to Rome’s success.

Traditionally, the term “empire” refers to a large political unit that exerts total power over others. Rome was a republic until 27 BCE when it established its first emperor, Augustus. Polybius utilizes the word to refer to Rome’s expansion of power and its eventual control over Spain, Sicily, Greece, and parts of North Africa. While the historian praises Rome’s victories and cunning strategies, he sees history as part of a cycle and acknowledges that unfettered imperial expansion threatens political success.

The First Macedonian War was a conflict that arose between Philip V of Macedon and Rome in 214 to 205 BCE. Rome developed an alliance with the Aetolian League to keep Philip in check, fearing he would ally with Carthage against Roman forces. The Second Macedonian War was also between Philip and Rome. The latter won the war in 197 BCE. Polybius views the First and Second Macedonian Wars as examples of the way Rome united the Mediterranean world. He contrasts Rome’s unification with the infighting between Greek states, which he believes contributed to the collapse of Greece.

The First Punic War was the first major conflict between Rome and Carthage, centered on control of Sicily. The war lasted from 264 to 241 BCE, and Rome ultimately won, taking control of Sicily. Polybius uses the First Punic War as a retrospective to examine Rome’s naval development and to contrast it with the Second Punic War, also known as the Hannibalic War. The First Punic War represents Rome’s first step toward imperialism.

The Second Punic War/Hannibalic War lasted from 218 to 201 BCE. The term “Hannibalic War” emphasizes the role of Carthaginian general Hannibal who attacked a Roman ally in Spain, escalating the conflict. Hannibal was a formidable force against the Romans but was defeated by Scipio’s army. Polybius uses the Second Punic War to highlight Hannibal and Scipio’s leadership skills, including their adaptability and strategy.

The term “Hellenistic” refers to the cultural period from 323 BCE to 31 BCE. Greece held powerful global influence over language, art, politics, philosophy, and science, with Greek traditions spreading to Egypt, Persia, and Central Asia. Polybius writes from a Hellenistic viewpoint, but he repeatedly asserts that it is his job as a historian to maintain an unbiased perspective. He writes that the Greek city-states were in cultural and political decline while Rome was advancing toward global domination.