50 pages • 1-hour read
Wind from an Enemy Sky
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Themes
The Clash Between Indigenous Cultures and Western Ideologies
Content Warning: This section addresses themes of racism, cultural erasure, and violence against Indigenous people.
One of Wind From an Enemy Sky’s central themes is the clash between Indigenous cultures and Western ideologies, a theme that manifests in various conflicts, tensions, and interactions among the characters. The novel explores the divide between Indigenous beliefs regarding their history and traditions and the encroaching influence of Western values driven by industrial progress and colonization. The physical landscape itself serves as a metaphor for the cultural divide, with Indigenous families residing in the foothills and white settlers occupying the flats.
This clash appears not only between the Indigenous and white characters but also within the Little Elk tribe, as portrayed by the tension between Bull and Henry Jim. The brothers represent different approaches to dealing with colonialism’s encroachment. Bull embodies resistance to assimilation, fiercely holding onto traditional values and rejecting the influence of the white man. His anger toward the dam built by white settlers symbolizes the frustration and helplessness felt by Indigenous peoples in the face of the cultural erosion and environmental degradation imposed by Western development. On the other hand, Henry Jim represents a more pragmatic approach, having embraced aspects of the white man’s world in an attempt to adapt and survive.
Henry Jim’s initial eagerness to comply with the government’s directives reflects the internalized belief that adopting their practices would bring progress and approval; as the men from the government said, “Your people will be proud of you” (117). However, it becomes evident that the government’s promises of prosperity and acceptance were hollow. Henry Jim’s isolation and longing for his traditional way of life underscore the disillusionment and alienation experienced by many Indigenous people in the face of colonization. He decides to turn his back on them in favor of his own people by requesting the return of the Feather Boy bundle, which he gave away years prior, and moving from his Western-style house back to his tepee in his final days.
On the side of the white colonial characters, Adam Pell, the dam’s designer, exemplifies the Western ideology of progress. Pell’s enthusiastic description of the dam as an engineering accomplishment and a positive creation contrast with the traumatic reality of the dam for the Little Elk people. Pell is so focused on this idea that by the time he realizes the damage he has directly caused to the people and the land, his nephew has already died.
Reverend Welles also represents the push for Indigenous peoples to assimilate to Western ideals and values. His assertion that “the Indian is anti-civilization” reflects the enduring stigma on Indigenous peoples and contributes to cycles of marginalization and alienation in these communities (52). His decision to send the Feather Boy bundle away and his refusal to entertain the possibility of helping in its retrieval underscore the missionary’s role in perpetuating Western hegemony and undermining Indigenous sovereignty.
The text suggests that the differences between Indigenous and Western beliefs are ultimately too strong. Attempts to reconcile and create peace, such as on the part of Henry Jim, come to nothing. A series of misunderstandings between the two sides result in the deaths of Jimmie Cooke, Adam Pell, Toby Rafferty, and Bull, along with the implied demise of the Little Elk’s way of life. McNickle portrays the differences between the two sides, due to differences in ideology and the trauma it created, as an insurmountable divide.
The Impact of Trauma on Indigenous Community and Identity
One of the novel’s critical themes is the effects of trauma not just on the Little Elk tribe but on all Indigenous communities that have been subjected to colonial violence and displacement. The strained relationship between Bull and Henry Jim illustrates the division within communities as a response to outside forces. Bull’s lingering resentment toward Henry Jim for his perceived betrayal and collaboration with the white man speaks to the deep wounds inflicted by centuries of colonization and oppression. His reluctance to trust Henry Jim’s intentions furthermore reflects a broader sense of mistrust and trauma that permeates Indigenous communities as they grapple with the legacies of displacement, violence, and cultural erasure.
Moreover, Henry Jim notes that his reason for the initial betrayal was the jealousy he felt when Bull was named leader of the tribe over Henry Jim, despite the latter being the older of the brothers. He says, “I tried to take away your power. It pleased me then” (18). However, he later regrets these actions and the isolation it caused. The book suggests that the trauma inflicted on the Little Elk tribe, though perpetuated by Western outsiders, generates conflict within the community. When going to speak on Henry Jim’s behalf to Rafferty, for example, one of the Little Elk men also explains the quarrel:
White men were coming in to our country, taking our land, killing the game, and sending our children away. We knew the white man was too strong for us, we couldn’t fight him, so we began to fight among ourselves and we blamed Henry Jim (84).
The actual problem, the text suggests, is the actions of the colonialists on their lands. However, since the Little Elk people could do nothing about it, they decided to make a scapegoat of Henry Jim, as he had adopted many of the settler’s ways himself. His actions symbolize the problem they are facing and, therefore, make him a target of their anger. However, the man also says, “That was wrong, since we are kinsmen” (84). Despite Bull’s reluctance to engage with his brother, he also concedes the need to confront the painful realities of their history and seek reconciliation and healing.
The text demonstrates that the trauma the people of the Little Elk tribe are dealing with is not just from past damage but rather damage that continues into the present. A tangible representation of this is the government-run residential school that Antoine was forced into. The residential schools were a real source of trauma for many Indigenous American and First Nations people in the United States and Canada, where Indigenous children faced forced assimilation and cultural erasure. Antoine was stripped of his cultural identity, renamed, and subjected to physical and emotional abuse. It is crucial to note that Antoine is referred to by the name given to him at the school, showing that the damage caused there is now a permanent part of him. What is more, the children weren’t the only ones who faced trauma as a result of these schools: Antoine’s mother, Celeste, never recovered from her son’s kidnapping. The resulting disruption of the family reflects the enduring impacts of colonial oppression not only on an individual level but also on the community’s collective well-being.
Thus, the story continuously recalls the enduring nature of the wounds inflicted on Indigenous peoples by colonial violence. The scars of colonization, displacement, and cultural erasure continue to haunt the characters, shaping their perceptions of themselves and their relationships with the outside world.
The Consequences of Environmental Desecration
In addition to the damage caused to the cultural identity by the encroachment of white colonialists on the Little Elk lands, McNickle also portrays the negative aspects of the damage to the land itself. The location of Bull’s camp near a stream emerging from the pine forest signifies the symbiotic relationship between the tribe and the land. However, this harmony is threatened by the looming specter of environmental desecration, embodied by the construction of a dam that diverts water away from the camp and disrupts the stream’s natural flow.
When Bull and Antoine go to see the dam, they are met with a desolate landscape. Bull’s initial disbelief gives way to anger and despair as he witnesses how the once-holy mountain meadow has been transformed into a lifeless expanse of concrete and a “body of purple black water” (6). In strong terms, the text describes what was once the riverbed: “The gravels and sands of its course had the look of bleached bones. So it was true, what his kinsmen had been telling him. They had killed the water” (2-3). The dam’s construction represents a violation of this natural order, disrupting the flow of water and irreversibly transforming the landscape. The descriptions of the gravel and the water are reminiscent of dry bones and bruises, comparing the imagery of the damage to the land to the death or injury of a person.
As a character, Henry Jim also embodies the consequences of environmental desecration. As he is dying, he reflects on the promises of progress made by the men from the government, which ultimately resulted in the disruption of his people’s way of life. Through Henry Jim’s recollections, the text reveals the transformation of the landscape, driven by misguided agricultural practices imposed by white settlers. The repeated cycles of land exploitation, from fencing to monoculture farming, disrupt traditional land management practices and undermine the delicate ecological balance upon which Indigenous livelihoods depend. The displacement of grazing lands and the enclosure of traditional territories disrupt the seasonal migrations of livestock and undermine Indigenous economies reliant on hunting, herding, and gathering.
Henry Jim, who himself bowed to these pressures, experiences a physical decline that parallels the deterioration of the natural environment around him: Both suffer from neglect and exploitation. This symbolic association represents the interconnectedness of human well-being and environmental health. Thus, the impact of environmental desecration in the story extends beyond physical destruction; it severs the spiritual ties that bind Indigenous communities to their ancestral territories. The colonial disregard for the land’s inherent value and their exploitation of natural resources stand in stark contrast to the Indigenous philosophy of stewardship and reverence for the environment. The disrespect shown toward the land serves as a commentary on the destructive consequences of cultural imperialism and colonialism.
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