48 pages • 1-hour read
An Edible History of Humanity
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Part 2Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Part 2: “Food and Social Structure”
Part 2, Chapter 3 Summary: “Food, Wealth, and Power”
Standage explains that it is dangerous to think of hunter-gatherers in an idyllic way or to perpetuate the “noble savage” myth of 18th-century Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who suggested that the hunter-gatherer way of life is a more peaceful and egalitarian lifestyle than what is found in agricultural societies. Standage makes clear that hunter-gatherer cultures are not perfect or always peaceful. Rather, he advocates for approaching these cultures as an interesting contrast to modern cultures that invite questions about how farming changed human life.
The introduction of agriculture changed how humans interacted both with the natural world and each other. Early farming communities evolved into complex structures with hierarchies of power. Rather than persisting as small villages in which everyone worked together to secure harvest, societies grew into cities in which some people handled farming while others filled new roles. Streamlined farming practices led to a surplus of food that Standage argues was the beginning of ruling elites: “With agriculture, people settled down; with intensification, they divided into rich and poor, rulers and farmers” (32). Society divided into specialized positions, and the wealthy elite moved further away from working with the land.
Like the development of agriculture, the evolution of power structures within societies was gradual. In hunter-gatherer societies, the nomadic way of life demands few possessions. The accumulation of material wealth did not align with the lifestyle: People could only carry so much. Items like pots and knives were collectively owned. Standage cites modern hunter-gatherer societies as examples of a culture of sharing and equality. The !Kung Bushmen have a unique set of cultural norms for hunters in which the hunter downplays his successes and takes time off if he has had greater success than his peers. These rules ensure that no hunter feels superior to others.
In agricultural societies, “Big Men” emerged, individuals who controlled surpluses of food. Big Men, sometimes called lineage elders, gave lavish gifts to others, creating a debt. The gifts these actors would receive in return provided them with further opportunity to create more debt with others. In many contemporary societies, Big Men give away most of their wealth in exchange for power; they are often materially poorer than their neighbors. When Big Men use their surpluses to develop their communities, they are viewed as leaders.
Many factors contributed to the transition from chiefdom to civilization. When Big Men oversaw major agricultural projects, such as irrigation and levee systems, the village became more productive and was then able to trade with surrounding villages. This growth further solidified the Big Man as a leader in the community. Surplus was also used to fund other major projects, including the development of small militaries. One theory suggests that the competition among villages over fertile land led to warfare and the need for militant leadership. As leaders competed with and defeated one another, even larger communities formed. Strong leaders may have been viewed as necessary and even beneficial to everyone with what they could provide: “working irrigation systems, greater security, performance of religious rites to maintain soil fertility, mediation in disputes” (44). Leaders also oversaw major developments in arts and the production of goods.
Part 2, Chapter 4 Summary: “Follow the Food”
In this chapter, Standage details how food shaped cultures and religions, leading to larger and more complex civilizations. He opens the chapter by describing ceremonies of the Inca, each of which aimed to solidify the relationship between successful crops and reverence for the ruling elite. In August, the maize-planting ceremony begins with the king ploughing part of a sacred field. It was believed that the crop would not be successful if the king did not open the planting festivals. The Incas saw the relationship between humans and the earth as a type of battle. The gods and the ruling elite were responsible for defeating the will of the earth. For many societies, the farming of food was used as a mechanism for the development and maintenance of power.
The ancient world reveals the first associations between food and power. Many cultures used food as a form of tax. Others required agricultural labor. In ancient Egypt, farmers did not own their land. Instead, they rented it from the ruling elite or the state and provided a share of the food they produced as payment. The greater the role that food played in society, the more complex society became.
Religions became more elaborate, and many early cultures used sacrifice to appease the gods. Many humans believed the gods were dependent on the sacrifices of food that people provided: “The Maya, for example, believed that maize was the flesh of the gods containing divine power, and at harvest time the gods were, in effect, sacrificing themselves to sustain humanity” (54). Sacrifices also helped to secure the power of the ruling elite, who worked as mediators between the human and spiritual realms.
The association between food and wealth persists today. Although money has replaced it, food as power infiltrates modern culture. The main earner in a household is called a “breadwinner,” and money is sometimes called “dough.” The wealthy elite still use elaborate parties and cuisine to advance and keep power.
Part 2 Analysis
In these chapters, Standage portrays agriculture as a catalyst for social complexity, associating the literal growth of domesticated plants with the metaphorical growth of new systems of production, belief, and power. In a simple hunter-gatherer structure, each person is responsible for contributing to the needs of all. Standage frames the transition from that structure to a system of food surplus as building over time, albeit so gradually that a macroanalysis such as his is necessary to see how agriculture led to today’s complex organization of hierarchical positions. Standage establishes the relationship between Agriculture and Power in this section, ensuring this connection is clear before he moves on to discussing in detail how humans abused that power.
Standage is quick to point out that it is problematic to idealize hunter-gatherer societies or to assume they were all innately peaceful. Such an approach to hunter-gatherer societies, which are very much still living societies today, has racist, colonialist roots. Instead, Standage encourages approaching hunter-gatherer societies as a point of comparison and contrast, examples by which we can better understand the influence of agriculture on human society. Historically, in hunter-gatherer communities, work and status was shared; few individuals held positions of authority over others. Many hunter-gatherer societies had cultural norms that helped maintain social equality. Standage cites a contemporary example in the modern !Kung Bushmen society to illustrate how these societal rules can function. In this case, a hunter is expected to downplay his kill, and if he is frequently successful, he takes a break so that others may take his place. The !Kung Bushmen are also suspicious of lavish gifts, viewing them as an attempt to gain control. Standage suggests that this suspicion is well founded: Surplus in agriculture, he argues, has proven to be the beginning of the human obsession with power. As people began domesticating plants through farming and selective breeding, their lives changed, with one of the most notable changes being the emergence of hierarchical structures.
In building on the theme of The Coevolution of Humans and Plants in these chapters, Standage focuses on change within human communities. The Standards Professions Lists, including those versions from as early as 3200 B.C., show the widespread influence of farming and its influence on class divide. Specialized roles emerged which placed some people above others. Reminding the reader that the evolution of power was gradual, Standage explains how the introduction of agriculture created a new set of cultural rules. Some people knew more about certain topics than others, so their roles became specialized. Big Men handled surplus food, creating complicated systems of trade and debt. These societies developed more intricate social systems and even built religions around agrarian cycles.
Standage relies on examples of ancient religions as he highlights the ties between religious beliefs, agriculture, and power. Many of the rituals surrounding harvest reveal a link between agriculture and violence, a link that Standage further explores in the following chapters as he delves deeper into the theme of Agriculture as a Destructive Force. Religion was used to establish and maintain positions of power, and religious myths were centered on the importance of agrarian cycles. The Incas serve as an example of this tendency. The king was responsible for plowing the first field, sending a message that his position was vital for a successful harvest. The ruling elite managed sacrifices, establishing themselves as mediators between the common people and the divine. Religion served as a new mechanism for maintaining order and continuing the growth of valuable crops, thereby securing more power.
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