“Weeping before for what she saw must come,

And piteous plainings of the pretty babes,

That mourn’d for fashion, ignorant what to fear…”

This description builds suspense over the characters’ fate, as the wife cries for what she thinks will happen, anticipating the babies’ deaths. The image of the babies crying without knowing why creates pathos through illustrating both their suffering and their innocence. The alliteration of “piteous plainings” with “pretty” highlights this further, placing their distress alongside the image of their children’s faces. Egeon’s story is given an epic nature by the poetic devices he uses, reflecting its emotional and physical scale.

“I to the world am like a drop of water

That in the ocean seeks another drop…”

Antipholus’s metaphor illustrates the almost impossible scale of his quest to find his brother, suggesting his hopelessness as he seeks to overcome The Problem of Rifts in Interpersonal Relationships. The symbol of the ocean reflects the random chaos of the world and its danger, and also recalls that they lost each other in a shipwreck (See: Symbols & Motifs). Antipholus’s poeticism and rumination on a bigger picture stands out in a play that is often dominated by attention to practicalities in the here and now. This shows that, for him, this quest is laden with a deeper meaning: He imagines himself in relation to it, suggesting that his knowledge of his lost twin shapes his own identity.

“I from my mistress come to you in post;

If I return I shall be post indeed,

For she will scour your fault upon my pate.”

Dromio uses a pun: Post means speedily (as a shortening of post-haste), but also refers to the doorpost of an inn upon which a record is kept. He uses this metaphor to show how Adriana scapegoats him for Antipholus’s faults: Her beatings leave physical marks which keep track. His use of humor to describe the beatings categorizes this violence as farce rather than a serious commentary. This quote is typical of both Dromios’ quick-witted wordplay, and shows how they use comedy tactically, often to take the sting out of their communication with Antipholus when he might react badly: Here, Dromio is trying to keep Antipholus on track with Adriana’s request. Shakespeare also uses this joke to reveal information about the poor state of Antipholus of Ephesus’s and Adriana’s marriage, once more invoking The Problem of Rifts in Interpersonal Relationships.

“The beasts, the fishes, and the winged fowls

Are their males’ subjects, and at their controls;

Man, more divine, the master of all these…”

Luciana’s idea of a set hierarchy reflects a mainstream way of understanding the world in the early modern period: a god-ordained natural hierarchy that was referred to as “the great chain of being.” The description of man as “more divine” specifically implies he is closer to god than the other creatures. The list of animals and the choice of words (“beasts” rather than animals or “fowl” rather than birds) purposefully echoes biblical language, particularly Genesis, to show that Luciana’s viewpoint is inspired by Early Modern interpretations of the Bible. She uses this theological view to give her argument the weight of religious authority. Luciana places gender roles into this context, arguing that they fit into this fixed hierarchy, and that this is why wives owe husbands their obedience.

“But, too unruly deer, he breaks the pale

And feeds from home; poor I am but his stale.”

Adriana uses a popular pun of this period: “[D]eer” also suggests the word “dear” as a term for a beloved partner. This pun suggests that as her partner, he is analogous to an animal that behaves erratically, breaking away from its ordained place. In literature of the period, the deer in particular was associated with love as the object of a chase, but also with infidelity due to the association of horns and cuckoldry. Here the husband is unfaithful to the wife: Adriana’s use of an image normally associated with female infidelity perhaps communicates frustration at the double standards regarding the seriousness of this misdemeanor. The word “feeds” is literal, as he is not dining with her but elsewhere, but also metaphorical, communicating sexual appetite. A “stale” meant a lover or mistress whose devotion is unwanted and ridiculed.

“When the sun shines let foolish gnats make sport,

But creep in crannies when he hides his beams.

If you will jest with me, know my aspect,

And fashion your demeanour to my looks,

Or I will beat this method in your sconce.”

Antipholus spells out the power dynamic to Dromio, stating though they often have an informal and pleasant relationship, they are master and servant, not friends. “Know my aspect” is a warning to Dromio to pay attention to his face to judge his mood: Their interactions must be on his terms. Antipholus uses the metaphor of the sun and gnats, juxtaposing their size to indicate the gulf of power and status between them, as the sun is often associated with kingship. This shows how Antipholus conceives of them: He is all-powerful, and Dromio is lowly and unimportant, and potentially irritating like a fly.

“If aught possess thee from me, it is dross,

Usurping ivy, briar, or idle moss,

Who all for want of pruning, with intrusion,

Infect thy sap, and live on thy confusion.”

Adriana uses the metaphor of an invasive weed to characterize Antipholus’s imagined mistress: She suggests that this hypothetical other woman is worthless, but traps him effectively. Her use of the adjectives “dross” and “idle” emphasize her idea of worthlessness. The description of this figure diminishing Antipholus reflects the notion that his immoral actions are destroying his soul, emphasized by the word “confusion,” which suggests he has lost himself. The word “infect” also has connotations of sexually transmitted disease. “Sap” similarly suggests life energy as a parallel of blood, but was also used in this period to mean sexual energy. Adriana suggests that both his soul and his body are damaged by his infidelity.

“Am I in earth, in heaven, or in hell?

Sleeping or waking, mad or well-advis’d?

Known unto these, and to myself disguis’d…”

Shakespeare uses Antipholus’s aside to reveal his struggles with The Nature of Identity. His utter bafflement creates comedy, as his list of possible scenarios reflects his confusion, as he can’t frame his experiences in any one narrative that explains them all. His use of questions emphasizes this, as he is unable to answer them. He juxtaposes opposing possibilities such as heaven and hell, underlining how inconsistent his experiences have been. The idea of being caught between sleep and wakefulness invokes a dreamlike state, recalling his earlier theory that he married Adriana in a dream and also suggesting shock. Antipholus’s sense of self is undermined by the fact that strangers apparently know him: He thus feels he is “disguis’d” to himself.

“If the skin were parchment and the blows you gave were ink,

Your own hand-writing would tell you what I think.”

Dromio uses the simile of parchment and ink to describe his bruises. He presents them as visual proof of his story, like a written record. This recalls his doorpost metaphor in I.2, building the impression that Dromio of Ephesus is consistently treated this way by both master and mistress. Though this is a violent image, Shakespeare maintains a light, comedic tone with the simple rhyme scheme and child-like image of “hand-writing,” as well as Dromio’s assertiveness, as he turns the focus of the argument back on Antipholus.

“DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. Ay, when fowls have no feathers, and fish have no fin.

ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. Well, I’ll break in; go borrow me a crow.

DROMIO OF EPHESUS. A crow without a feather; master, mean you so?

For a fish without a fin, there’s a fowl without a feather…”

Here, multiple characters speak one line after another, suggesting the pace of their dialogue to communicate their confusion and frustration. The characters rhyme with each other and maintain each other’s iambic pentameter as a foundational rhythm, creating a fast, farcical quality. Shakespeare mixes physical and verbal comedy: Antipholus tries to break down his own door while the Dromios banter using wordplay, unaware they are speaking to their twin. Their banter reflects their similarity: Dromio of Ephesus quickly picks up on his twin’s phrasing and builds on it for his own joke, wittily conceiving of the featherless bird he mentioned as the crowbar Antipholus asks for: This would in theory allow them to break in literally but also figuratively, by meeting Dromio of Syracuse’s seemingly impossible condition.

“Though others have the arm, show us the sleeve;

We in your motion turn, and you may move us.”

Luciana uses a metaphor to instruct Antipholus about the correct way to behave in marriage. She uses the image of the outer appearance of clothes versus the inner truth of the person underneath, pleading that he go through the motions of love even if he doesn’t really feel it. She suggests that his actions are more important than his feeling, reflecting her belief in duty and correct behavior over emotions. This is consistent with her argument to Adriana to behave as a dutiful wife however she feels about her husband’s behavior. “We in your motion turn” creates an image of women orbiting men, and men defining their world. “You may move us” suggests men’s power over women, reinforcing the sense of gender hierarchy.

“Oh train me not, sweet mermaid, with thy note

To drown me in thy sister’s flood of tears;

Sing, siren, for thyself, and I will dote…”

Antipholus characterizes Luciana as a “mermaid” or “siren,” suggesting that he finds her beauty as powerful as magic. These mythical female beings were alluring but also dangerous: He is attracted to her, but feels an element of apprehension due to the nonsensical world she seems to inhabit. Despite this, he invites her to “sing,” as he is willing to take a risk to be with her. His metaphor of a “flood” for Adriana’s weeping places her in the same metaphorical world of water as Luciana, but where she is an object of feminine beauty, he presents Adriana as a destructive, overwhelming force. The rhyme scheme here is A B A B rather than the pairs of rhyming couplets found in many other places in the play. This type of rhyme maintains a light, comedic tone but is more poetic and less farcical, reflecting his love for her.

“O, sir, upon her nose, all o’er-embellished with rubies, carbuncles, sapphires, declining their rich aspect to the hot breath of Spain, who sent whole armadoes of carracks to be ballast at her nose.”

Dromio’s misogynistic comparison of the maid’s body to different countries reflects the commodification of women’s bodies in the early modern period, speaking to The Importance of Commerce and Wealth in the play. He compares the acne on her nose to the material wealth of the Americas, imagining an abundance of precious jewels. Dromio builds his metaphor by describing Spain as her breath spreading out toward her nose, reflecting Spanish naval incursions into this region in search of wealth. He characterizes Spain as “hot,” reflecting its climate but also suggesting boldness and aggression. He uses militaristic terms such as “ballast” to present them as warmongering, specifically mentioning “armadoes.” His depiction of Spain reflects an English perspective of recent historic events, with the Spanish armada invasion attempt happening a few years before the play’s first performance. Unlike much of the play, this is not in verse, reflecting the crudeness of Dromio’s jokes and subject matter.

“Here is thy fee, arrest him officer.

I would not spare my brother in this case

If he should scorn me so apparently.”

Angelo’s blunt instructions to the Officer reflect the sudden turn of events as the stakes escalate fast for Antipholus: He is now being arrested by someone he had a friendly relationship with. This moment depicts the cutthroat business world of Ephesus and how dangerous it is, reinforcing The Importance of Commerce and Wealth. Angelo pays to have him arrested even while owing money, showing the importance of reputation in this society. This is also a farcical moment, as the Officer is suddenly arresting a totally different person from expected.

“A fiend, a fury, pitiless and rough,

A wolf, nay worse, a fellow all in buff…”

Dromio gives an extensive, poetic description of the people who arrested Antipholus, which communicates his heightened emotions, showing how disturbing he has found these events. His hyperbolic description of the Officer depicts him as an almost supernatural being of power and threat, showing his state of fear. The phrase “in buff” refers to a sergeant’s uniform. “Fiend” and “fury” have connotations of hell, reflecting Dromio’s experience of Ephesus in which nothing makes sense and everyone seems to know him somehow. The wolf recalls the idea of a wolf in sheep’s clothing, showing that from his perspective, the people here turn from generosity to hostility in the blink of an eye.

“It is written, they appear to men like angels of light; light is an effect of fire, and fire will burn; ergo, light wenches will burn…”

The phrase “it is written” recalls the Bible: Dromio frames his experiences in Biblical terms, fearing that Ephesus and its inhabitants are hellish. He compares the Courtesan to Satan, appearing deceptively as an angel of light but actually dangerous and evil. “Light” refers to an angelic appearance but also describes sexual immorality; when he concludes that “light wenches will burn,” he suggests that promiscuous women will get venereal disease, referring to a painful bodily sensation. However this also suggests that witches corrupted by the devil will be burned to death, and burned in hell, alluding back to his imagery of Ephesus as a hell, and to his and Antipholus’s constant fear that it is full of witches.

“DROMIO OF EPHESUS. Here’s that, I warrant you, will pay them all.

ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. But where’s the money?

DROMIO OF EPHESUS. Why, sir, I gave the money for the rope.”

This quotation builds the farcical humor of the scene, as each character has a completely different understanding of what is going on. The huge difference in the stakes for each character and their subsequent contrast in manner creates comedy. Antipholus’s urgency is reflected by his blunt, direct question; Dromio opens with a joke about him getting his own back against Adriana. Like Dromio’s lines here, most of this interchange is in iambic pentameter, creating a fast-paced back and forth between them. However, Antipholus’s question about money is half a line (five beats), interrupting this pattern to reflect that this question is a moment of shock, as their different realities become incompatible.

“Mistress, both man and master is possess’d,

I know it by their pale and deadly looks;

They must be bound and laid in some dark room.”

Shakespeare uses dramatic irony to comically highlight Pinch’s quackery: He is authoritative in diagnosing possession, but the audience knows that there is an earthly explanation for everything. Their “pale and deadly looks” describe the state that Antipholus and Dromio are in, indicating their distress, but also shows how frightening this is for observers by describing them as dangerous. Pinch’s instructions raise the stakes by showing the fate that awaits them, when the audience knows they aren’t actually “mad.”

“LUCIANA. God for thy mercy, they are loose again!

ADRIANA. And come with naked swords; let’s call more help

To have them bound again.

OFFICER. Away, they’ll kill us!”

Luciana’s appeal to God’s mercy shows her alarm and shock as Antipholus and Dromio seem to suddenly reappear. This builds the farcical tone of this Act and also builds toward the conclusion, as the two sets of twins’ paths come closer, causing greater panic and confusion. Their drawn swords reflect this escalation. Shakespeare uses rhythm to contribute to a high tempo that echoes the confusion and fear of all three characters: The iambic pentameter continues through Adriana’s half-line into the Officer’s half-line, so they effectivity share one line, suggesting the pace of their speech. This also reflects their shared perception of reality and shared aim in this moment, as they are united in fear. The Officer’s extra syllable gives a sense of chaos as they flee.

“Fie on thee, wretch, ‘tis pity that thou liv’st

To walk where any honest man resort.”

Fie is an expression of disgust or outrage, expressing the Merchant’s indignity at Antipholus’s apparent deception. He uses the words “wretch” and “pity” to show that he sees such behavior as lowly rather than clever. These lines show the terrible reputational consequences of these mishaps for Antipholus of Ephesus. The position of the phrase “pity thou liv’st” before a line break emphasizes the darker meaning to his words by placing it as a distinct phrase wishing he was dead (rather than the longer sentiment that he shouldn’t live among honest people). The idea that he walks among honest men undetected reflects the overall themes of the play, in which people’s forms do not always reflect The Nature of Identity.

“She is a virtuous and a reverend lady,

It cannot be that she hath done thee wrong.”

Solinus’s description gives insight into Emilia’s character, which is important because she is introduced so late into the plot. “Virtuous” and “reverend” both have religious connotations, reflecting her moral behavior and her formal role as an Abbess. His attitude that her usual behavior negates any possibility of her misconduct also gives insight into the mindset of most of the characters in the play: They see people as fixed and unchangeable, and struggle to conceive of anyone acting out of line with their reputation or The Nature of Identity. This belief explains why everyone is so slow to respond to Antipholus’s and Dromio’s strange behavior and instead assumes they are joking: They cannot believe someone would act out of character.

“Ay me, it is my husband; witness you

That he is borne about invisible;

Even now we hous’d him in the abbey here,

And now he’s there, past thought of human reason.”

Adriana’s exclamation of “Ay me” indicates her shock and alarm and shows that events are becoming increasingly improbable, frightening to the characters but farcical to the audience. Her plea of “witness you” emphasizes her disbelief, as she seeks to validate her experience by ensuring others see it too. The characters no longer trust that their accounts will be believed, as everyone has a conflicting version of events. She assumes that the only explanation is supernatural: She thinks he was not only invisible but also carried by something, suggesting the involvement of a malevolent force like the devil, as invoked by Pinch earlier. The phrase “human reason” shows that she cannot see a human explanation or in fact any explanation that makes sense. This draws her into the same mindset as the twins, who feel that they are surrounded by nonsensical magic.

“O! Grief hath chang’d me since you saw me last,

And careful hours with time’s deformed hand

Have written strange defeatures in my face…”

Egeon’s exclamation of “O!” shows his heightened distress, and his shock as his own son fails to recognize him. His response ties into the imagery of transformation used elsewhere in the play, but offers a different version of this. Whereas the other characters have all been thinking of magical transformation, Egeon expresses that there are other, human ways that people transform: He feels he is transformed by emotions and time. He uses the words “strange” and “deformed” to show that even though he understands how these changes happen, they are still alien and unsettling to him. He personifies time, emphasizing it as an active and powerful force that interacts with human beings.