Major Pettigrew's Last Stand

As early as 2600 BCE, a sophisticated civilization with developed urban centers, copper and bronze tools, and complex routes of trade developed in the Indus Valley. Subsequent influences into the area introduced Vedic culture, which is based on the sacred texts collectively known as the Vedas and including scriptures like the Mahabharata and the epic poem Ramayana. British writers of the 19th century labeled this system of beliefs Hinduism, and it continues to be a prominent world religion today, serving as the primary belief system of around 80% of the population of India.

In the third century BCE, Buddhism was introduced into areas of what is now northern India and Pakistan, and beginning in the eighth CE, conquests by Muslim rulers brought Islam and the Arabic language to the region as well. The Mughal Empire (which is the theme of the annual party of the Major’s golf club in the novel) began in 1526 with the rule of Babur, a descendant of Genghis Khan. The Mughals were Muslim rulers who emphasized religious tolerance and political stability. The empire was admired for its economic and cultural achievements, and at its height, it covered northern India and extended into modern-day Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Bangladesh.

In 1613, the Mughal ruler allowed the British East India Company to establish a trading center in Surat (now Gujurat), and this development marked the beginning of British contact with the varied cultures and languages of the Indian peoples. Over the subsequent decades, the East India Company expanded its military and political influence in the area, the better to secure economic advantages over other European competitors (particularly France and the Netherlands). At the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the East India Company’s army defeated the ruler of Bengal, rendering the province a British dependency and securing territorial control, which the British then made every effort to extend. In 1857, after suppressing the Indian Rebellion (known to the British as the Sepoy Mutiny), the British government claimed political possession of India, establishing the British Raj and naming the British monarch, Queen Victoria, as the Empress of India.

Movements for Indian independence increased over the subsequent decades, and along with them came calls by Muslim leaders for more tolerance and self-governance for the Muslim minority. Louis Mountbatten, the last viceroy of the British Empire in India, proposed to partition the country into Hindu-majority and Muslim-majority areas to avert conflict. The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act in July 1947 and set the date of midnight on August 14, 1947, as the deadline to form two separate and independent countries. India would occupy a larger portion of the subcontinent and would be ruled by Hindu officials, while Pakistan (divided into West and East Pakistan in the northern portion) would be ruled by Muslim officials. (Since 1971, the former East Pakistan has been the independent country of Bangladesh.)

Violence broke out immediately around the new borders, as those not considered to belong to the “new” country were forced out of their homes or simply killed. Approximately 15 million people were displaced due to Partition, and estimates vary widely as to the total number of people affected by violence. Some sources estimate that up to 2 million people died as a result of displacement. The violent transition was deeply traumatic for many, including the Sikh communities that found themselves along the suddenly drawn borders.

After Partition and independence, Pakistani emigration to the United Kingdom increased. At the time of writing, the British Pakistani population, numbering over one and a half million people, is the largest emigrant Pakistani population in Europe. Pakistanis comprise just under 3% of the population of England and Wales. The majority adhere to the Islamic faith, which recommends abstinence from alcohol and forbids the eating of pork, among other dietary observances. Many Muslim women believe in covering their hair with a headscarf or hijab as a gesture of modesty and piety. The shalwar kameez is the traditional dress for men and women living throughout South and Central Asia. The attire consists of a pair of trousers and a long tunic that may have a slit up the sides. In the novel, the samosas that Mrs. Ali makes are a common snack in South Asia and the Middle East, comprising a folded pastry with a savory filling.