Nicomachean Ethics

Calmness is a virtue of character that deals with the topic of anger. Aristotle points out that the calm person is not devoid of anger, and anger can be an important and useful tool. However, the calm person is angry at “the right things.” This virtue lies between acting too passionately and impulsively and failing to feel anger when anger is justified. Some translations use the term meekness rather than calmness.

Aristotle uses craft in a way that is similar to art. He states that craft is about creating a product, as opposed to scientific knowledge. The individual takes knowledge and applies it to create something; he describes this as another means by which the soul seeks truth.

Aristotle suggests that there are three types of friendship. Two types—friendship for utility and friendship for pleasure—are incomplete friendships. Both are built upon a foundation of desire, and these friendships are more likely to become unequal and to end badly. A complete friendship is one that is founded upon love. These friendships are rare but enriching.

Generosity represents the giving of wealth to others. Aristotle proposes that its extremes are wastefulness and ungenerosity. A person who spends too much in a reckless manner commits a vice, as does the person who hoards money and does not share or spend it.

Aristotle suggests that good is an action that contributes to overall happiness. This can be for the individual or for society. Good is enacted through virtue and requires voluntary decisions founded in agency; good must be pursued. Aristotle finds good in learning and study above all other pursuits.

Aristotle defines happiness as the outcome of virtue. It is goodness or living the best life. Happiness is achieved only through virtue; choosing the virtuous act—the moderate or mean option between two extremes—is the path to happiness.

Incontinence refers to a lack of self-restraint. Aristotle suggests that this vice is different from intemperance, a vice that seeks an excess of pleasure. Incontinence is worse than intemperance because it moves beyond an active choice; it is a compulsion or state of appetite for pleasure that cannot be ignored.

Justice is a virtue that contributes to the goodness of others. Justice requires voluntary actions that seek to benefit the common welfare of others. This is tied to Aristotle’s view that one must work for the greater good of society. The proper use of anger is to demand justice when a wrong is committed.

Magnificence means doing or being great. Aristotle emphasizes that magnificence is about committing to a larger purpose and acting for the benefit of society. It depends on being generous and unwasteful with one’s resources. The importance of both magnificence and magnanimity in his writing reflects the ancient Greeks’ emphasis upon honor; these qualities relate to the positive way the community perceives a person.

Aristotle describes magnanimity as a virtue of honor that indicates that a person acts with courage and openness. People who perceive that they are worthy of honor and live in accordance with it are considered magnanimous. This virtue indicates that a person avoids flattery and does what is right without concern for what is popular.

Prudence in Aristotle’s work refers to thinking through decisions and contemplating how they might affect others. Prudence is an important virtue that is often paired with other virtues such as courage. It involves understanding and acknowledging the truth about a person’s place in the world.

Scientific knowledge is something that is learnable. Aristotle suggests that it is demonstrated through a thorough learning of scientific principles. However, scientific knowledge does not indicate that the individual understands how those principles relate; understanding is deeper than mere knowledge of something or the ability to memorize facts.

Temperance refers to self-control or mastery of one’s impulses. This gives a person the ability to avoid extreme behaviors. The term indicates abstinence, often in the context of alcohol. Ancient Greeks considered temperance to indicate excellent character and right action.

Understanding indicates a level that is beyond scientific knowledge, or mere possession of a set of facts. Aristotle identifies understanding and study as the greatest of the virtues, based on the results they have in his life, although he acknowledges that others may find this satisfaction elsewhere. Understanding is attained through study and contemplation. A person with understanding rarely makes mistakes because their knowledge is deep and wide.

Virtue is an action exerted through conscious decision and voluntary effort. Virtues are represented by a balance or middle ground between two opposing vices. For example, the virtue of bravery exists between cowardice and total fearlessness. Aristotle suggests that virtue is the only way to achieve happiness.