Washington: A Life

Chapter 55 traces Washington’s attempt to remain above faction as Jefferson and Madison organized opposition to Hamilton’s expanding federal program. Jefferson installed Philip Freneau and the National Gazette to attack administration policies; financial frenzies (“scrippomania,” “bancomania”) and the Duer crash fueled partisan suspicion. Washington contemplated retirement and had Madison draft a farewell, then labored to mediate the Hamilton–Jefferson feud through pointed private letters. Despite growing Virginia criticism and Jefferson’s charges, counsel (notably from Eliza Powel) helped persuade Washington to serve a second term to stabilize the young government.

Washington, unanimously reelected, began a contentious second term marked by partisan newspapers and the European war’s shockwaves. He asserted executive authority with the April 1793 neutrality proclamation, aiming to keep the US out of Britain–France hostilities. The new French minister, Citizen Genet, inflamed opinion by arming privateers, recruiting Americans, and threatening an appeal over Washington’s head; Washington demanded his recall but later granted him asylum. Lafayette fell into Austrian captivity; Jefferson wavered on resignation but stayed briefly. The crisis spawned Democratic Republican Societies and intensified attacks on Washington, even as he maintained neutrality and a pared-down public style.