Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources

Martin Lings draws on Arabic biographical sources from the eighth and ninth centuries to narrate the life of the Prophet Muhammad, tracing a lineage from the patriarch Abraham. According to both the Bible and the Koran, Abraham fathered two sons: Ishmael, born to the handmaid Hagar, and Isaac, born to his wife Sarah. Hagar and Ishmael were guided to the barren valley of Becca (later called Mecca), where a miraculous well, Zamzam, sprang forth. Abraham and Ishmael built the Ka'bah, a cube-shaped sanctuary incorporating a celestial Black Stone, and Abraham instituted the rite of Pilgrimage. Over the centuries, Ishmael's descendants fell into idolatry, and the well was buried and lost.

Around 400 AD, the Quraysh tribe gained control of Mecca. Through their lineage emerged the clan of Hāshim, whose leader 'Abd al-Muṭṭalib recovered the Well of Zamzam through a series of visions. His son 'Abd Allāh married Āminah but died while she was pregnant. In the same period, known as the Year of the Elephant (c. 570 AD), an Abyssinian army marching to destroy the Ka'bah was miraculously repelled by swarms of birds. Āminah gave birth to Muhammad, and 'Abd al-Muṭṭalib carried the infant to the Ka'bah in thanksgiving.

Following Meccan custom, the infant was nursed among the Bedouin, where his foster-mother Ḥalīmah experienced miraculous abundance. At about age two, two figures in white removed a black clot from his heart in an event understood as a spiritual purification. Muhammad's mother died when he was six, and his grandfather two years later, leaving him in the care of his uncle Abū Ṭālib. As a young man, Muhammad earned the reputation "al-Amīn" (the Trustworthy). Khadījah, a wealthy widow, hired him as a trader and, impressed by his character, proposed marriage. They had two sons who died in infancy and four daughters. The household included 'Alī, Abū Ṭālib's young son, and Zayd ibn Ḥārithah, a freed slave.

In his 40th year, during a retreat in a cave on Mount Ḥirā', Muhammad received his first Revelation. The Angel Gabriel commanded him to "Recite" and revealed the opening verses of what would become the Koran. Terrified, Muhammad feared he had been possessed, but Khadījah comforted him, and her cousin Waraqah, a Christian scholar, identified Gabriel as the same angel who had come to Moses. After a painful silence, further Revelations followed.

The first to embrace Islam after Khadījah were 'Alī, then 10 years old, the freedman Zayd, and Muhammad's close friend Abū Bakr, whose influence brought in many early converts. Muhammad's public denunciation of Quraysh's idols provoked fierce persecution: Bilāl, an enslaved African convert to Islam, was tortured under a rock in the midday sun, and Sumayyah became Islam's first martyr. Abū Ṭālib refused to embrace Islam but steadfastly protected his nephew. Muhammad's uncle Ḥamzah entered Islam after Abū Jahl, a chief of the Quraysh clan of Makhzūm, insulted the Prophet. 'Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, a fierce opponent, converted after being moved by Koranic verses at his sister's house. About 80 Muslims emigrated to Abyssinia, where the Christian king (the Negus) sheltered them.

Quraysh imposed a total ban on the clans of Hāshim and Muṭṭalib. After more than two years of near-famine, sympathizers organized the ban's annulment. In 619 AD, both Khadījah and Abū Ṭālib died, leaving Muhammad bereft of his wife and protector. He traveled to Ṭā'if seeking support but was driven out. During this period, Muhammad experienced the Night Journey: Gabriel transported him on the celestial steed Burāq to Jerusalem, where he led all the Prophets in prayer. He then ascended through the seven Heavens to the Lote Tree of the Uttermost End, the furthest boundary of heaven, where he received the command of five daily prayers.

At the annual Pilgrimage, Muhammad met six men of the Khazraj tribe from the oasis of Yathrib (later Medina). They recognized him as the Prophet foretold by Jews who lived among them. Over the following two years, delegations pledged allegiance at 'Aqabah, promising to protect him. Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate. When Quraysh conspired to assassinate him, 'Alī slept in his bed as a decoy while Muhammad and Abū Bakr hid in a cave on Mount Thawr, concealed by a spider's web and a nesting dove. They reached the oasis on September 27, 622 AD, an event known as the Hijrah (emigration), which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

In Medina, Muhammad built a mosque, established brotherhood between the Emigrants and Helpers, and made a covenant with the Jewish tribes. He sent raiding parties against Meccan caravans. In 624 AD, at the Battle of Badr, 305 Muslims defeated a Quraysh army of about 1,000. The following year, at Uḥud, the Muslims initially prevailed but suffered a devastating reversal when archers left their post, allowing enemy cavalry to flank them. Ḥamzah was killed, Muhammad was wounded, and about 65 Muslims died.

Two years later, a coalition of 10,000 men besieged Medina. Following the advice of Salmān, a Persian convert, Muhammad had a trench dug across the city's northern approach. The Bani Qurayzah, the last Jewish tribe in Medina, broke their pact during the siege. After the coalition dispersed, Muhammad besieged the Bani Qurayzah. Sa'd ibn Mu'ādh, chief of the Aws tribe and chosen arbiter, sentenced the men to death and the women and children to captivity.

In 628 AD, Muhammad set out for a pilgrimage to Mecca, but Quraysh barred his approach. At Ḥudaybiyah, a treaty established a 10-year truce. Though the terms seemed disadvantageous, a Revelation declared the treaty "a clear victory." Muhammad then conquered Khaybar, a wealthy Jewish stronghold, and the truce allowed Islam to spread rapidly. When allies of Quraysh attacked Muhammad's allies in violation of the treaty, Muhammad mustered 10,000 men and marched on Mecca. Abū Sufyān, chief of the Quraysh clan of Umayyah, entered Islam on the eve of the conquest. Mecca fell with minimal resistance. At the Ka'bah, Muhammad pointed his staff at each of the 360 idols, reciting "The Truth hath come and the false hath vanished," and each fell on its face. He granted a general amnesty.

After Mecca's conquest, Muhammad defeated the tribe of Hawāzin at Ḥunayn and besieged Ṭā'if, the walled city of the Thaqīf tribe, before withdrawing; Thaqīf later entered Islam. In 630 AD, Muhammad led 30,000 men to Tabūk on the Syrian border in response to rumors of Byzantine aggression, but no enemy materialized. The ninth year became "the year of deputations" as tribes across Arabia pledged allegiance.

In the 10th year, Muhammad led the Farewell Pilgrimage. At 'Arafah he delivered his final sermon, declaring the inviolability of every Muslim's life and property, and a final Revelation descended: "This day have I perfected for you your religion." Back in Medina, he fell ill and moved to the apartment of his wife 'Ā'ishah, Abū Bakr's daughter. On June 8, 632 AD, Muhammad died with his head resting on 'Ā'ishah's breast, murmuring of "the supreme communion in Paradise." Abū Bakr addressed the stunned congregation: "Whoso hath been wont to worship Muhammad, verily Muhammad is dead; and whoso hath been wont to worship God, verily God is Living and dieth not." Abū Bakr was chosen as caliph, or successor, and the Prophet was buried beneath the floor of 'Ā'ishah's room.