Generations: The Real Differences Between Gen Z, Millennials, Gen X, Boomers, and Silents―and What They Mean for America's Future
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Background
Historical Context: The Strauss-Howe Generational Theory
Jean Twenge’s Generations presents its central argument as an alternative to the Strauss-Howe generational theory, a cyclical model of history developed by authors William Strauss and Neil Howe in Generations (1991) and further developed in The Fourth Turning (1997).Their theory posits that Anglo-American history unfolds in repeating 80- to 90-year cycles, or “saecula,” each containing four distinct generational archetypes associated with recurring phases of the historical cycle (van Eck Duymaer van Twist, Amanda, and Suzanne Newcombe. “Strauss-Howe Generational Theory.” In James Crossley and Alastair Lockhart (eds.), Critical Dictionary of Apocalyptic and Millenarian Movements (online resource at the University of Cambridge), 2021). In the 1991 Generations, Strauss and Howe identify the four archetypes as Idealist, Reactive, Civic, and Adaptive. In The Fourth Turning, they rename the archetypes as Prophet, Nomad, Hero, and Artist and situate them within four recurring historical “turnings”: High, Awakening, Unraveling, and Crisis. For example, a “Hero” generation (like the GIs of World War II) is born during an Unraveling and comes of age during a Crisis, followed by an “Artist” generation (like the Silent Generation) born during that Crisis.
Twenge challenges the explanatory power of this cyclical model for recent generations, arguing that the accelerating influence of technology has disrupted the historical pattern Strauss and Howe describe. She proposes a “Technology Model of Generations” in which technological advancement is the primary driver of cultural and generational change (5). Twenge does not reject Strauss and Howe’s model entirely; she credits them with identifying recurring historical cycles of stability and conflict but argues that technological change has disrupted the corresponding cycles of generational types. As she writes, “The strong influence of technology since the middle of the last century has seemingly broken the previous pattern of generational cycles” (19). Twenge therefore uses the contrast between the two models to establish one of Generations’ central claims: Recent generational differences are better explained by the cumulative effects of technological change, individualism, and a slower life trajectory than by a recurring cycle of generational archetypes.
Cultural Context: The Smartphone and the Mental Health Crisis
A central argument in Generations is that the post-2012 rise in mental health problems among adolescents and young adults is linked to the rapid adoption of smartphones and other forms of digital media. Research published in Journal of Adolescence found that school loneliness among 15- and 16-year-olds increased between 2012 and 2018 in 36 of the 37 countries studied and was higher in countries with greater smartphone access and internet use. The authors conclude that adolescent psychological well-being declined after 2012 alongside increasing smartphone access and internet use, while acknowledging that the study cannot establish causation (Twenge, Jean M., et al. “Worldwide Increases in Adolescent Loneliness.” Journal of Adolescence, vol. 93, 2021, pp. 257-69). For Jean Twenge, the timing of these changes is important to understanding Generation Z. She argues that increased use of digital media contributed to rising rates of depression, self-harm, and suicide among young people in part by displacing in-person social interaction and other activities.
This thesis, first introduced in Twenge’s 2017 book iGen, was initially met with skepticism, while subsequent research and public debate have continued to examine the potential effects of social media on adolescent well-being. In 2021, whistleblower Frances Haugen disclosed internal documents from Meta (then Facebook) that included company research on Instagram’s effects on teenage users. According to the National Education Association, the internal findings reported that 32% of teenage girls surveyed said that when they already felt negatively about their bodies, Instagram made them feel worse (Walker, Tim. “Facebook Whistleblower Frances Haugen: Educators, Students Can Lead Social Media Reform.” NEA Today, 17 Mar. 2022). These findings provide context for the broader concerns about adolescent social media use that inform Twenge’s argument, although they do not by themselves establish that smartphones or social media caused the broader rise in youth mental health problems. In Generations, Twenge nevertheless argues that the rapid adoption of digital technologies is the most likely explanation for the post-2012 increase, writing of the changes in mental health and behavior between Millennials and Gen Z, “They arose from the fastest adoption of any technology in human history” (401).
Authorial Context: Jean M. Twenge
Jean M. Twenge is a professor of psychology at San Diego State University whose work focuses extensively on generational differences and changes over time. Her research frequently uses large-scale surveys and cross-temporal comparisons to examine changes in attitudes, behaviors, and psychological characteristics across generations. According to her official academic biography, she has “authored over 190 scientific publications” and has conducted research on generational differences for several decades (“About Jean.” Dr. Jean Twenge). This quantitative approach also shapes Generations, in which Twenge uses large datasets to distinguish changes associated with generation from those associated with age. For Generations, Twenge analyzes “twenty-four datasets including thirty-nine million people” to construct her arguments (2). She notes that nearly all of these datasets are nationally representative and that most contain data from the United States, although some include data from other countries. This reliance on large-scale survey data collected across multiple decades is central to the methodology and arguments of Generations.
Generations builds on research and arguments presented in Twenge’s earlier books. Her 2006 work, Generation Me, examines increasing individualism and changing attitudes among younger Americans, while her 2017 book, iGen, examines changes among members of Gen Z, including the relationship Twenge identifies between the rise of smartphones and increases in adolescent mental health problems. In Generations, she connects these earlier lines of research through her Technology Model of Generations. By tracing the effects she attributes to technology, individualism, and a slower life trajectory across six American generations, Twenge develops a broader explanation for how technological and cultural changes contribute to generational differences over time.
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