United States border control policy increasingly extends south, transforming Mexico into a frontline enforcer through a strategy known as externalized deterrence. In Soldiers and Kings, Jason De León documents the dangerous consequences of this approach. Launched in 2014 with US encouragement, Mexico’s Programa Frontera Sur militarized southern migration routes with checkpoints and raids. Initiated during the Obama administration, this process allowed the United States to deflect its responsibilities when it comes to migration. This strategy converted Mexico into what the International Crisis Group calls a “‘buffer state’—deporting more Central Americans than the US since 2015—and a destination for asylum seekers” (“Mexico’s Southern Border: Security, Violence and Migration in the Trump Era.” International Crisis Group, 9 May 2018). The book illustrates how this policy architecture, visible in the US-trained GOET force in Honduras and frequent raids in Chiapas, creates a landscape of heightened risk.

This fortified environment funnels migrants toward illicit economies. As De León notes, “Increased security leads to more danger and higher costs, all of which means more business for smugglers” (29). The long-term consequences of the policy and its enforcement have only grown in line with the US budget for the border wall, patrol, and other anti-immigration forces. Since 2025, with President Trump’s second term, government efforts toward a strengthened border and increased deportation of both documented and undocumented immigrants have increased, including through the deployment of the controversial Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) officers. This displaces more migrants back into South America, where they must face violence and poverty or reattempt the migrant trail; there, the deterrence policies force migrants to seek out more remote or dangerous routes. Together, the many US strategies strengthen the criminal networks it purports to undermine, enriching smugglers and exposing migrants to greater violence.