Dan Wang’s Breakneck examines China during a period of profound transformation spanning from the late 1970s through the 2020s, with particular focus on developments from 2017 to 2023. Understanding this historical context requires examining two distinct phases: the reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping and the centralization period under Xi Jinping.

China’s modern transformation began in December 1978 when the Communist Party formally adopted Deng Xiaoping’s reform policies at the Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee. This decision marked a fundamental departure from Mao Zedong’s policies, which had produced catastrophic outcomes including the Great Leap Forward famine and the Cultural Revolution’s destruction of institutional stability. Deng, who emerged as paramount leader after Mao’s death in 1976, recognized that China required structural economic changes to modernize and improve living standards. His pragmatic approach prioritized results over ideological purity.

The initial reform phase involved experimental approaches concentrated in designated areas. In 1980, Deng established special economic zones in Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, and Xiamen, which functioned as laboratories for market-oriented policies. These zones attracted foreign investment and fostered export-driven growth while allowing the government to test capitalist mechanisms without implementing them nationwide. Shenzhen’s transformation from a fishing village to a major manufacturing hub exemplifies this experimental strategy. The household responsibility system dismantled collective agriculture, allowing families to manage their own plots and sell surplus production. Township and village enterprises emerged as hybrid entities combining elements of private enterprise with collective ownership.

China’s integration into the global economy accelerated through the 1990s and culminated with accession to the World Trade Organization in December 2001. This membership required China to liberalize its economy further and adhere to international trade regulations. The growth that resulted proved remarkable. This growth occurred under leadership that prioritized technical expertise. During Deng’s tenure and continuing through his successors Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, officials with engineering backgrounds dominated the highest levels of government. This technocratic orientation shaped policy approaches that emphasized infrastructure construction, manufacturing development, and technological advancement. However, the reform era also created significant challenges, including regional disparities, environmental degradation, corruption, and property bubbles.

A fundamental shift occurred in November 2012 when Xi Jinping assumed the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party. Contrary to predictions that he would be a weak leader operating within a system of collective decision-making, Xi moved swiftly to concentrate power in his own hands. This centralization represented a departure from post-Mao efforts to prevent excessive power concentration among a few elites. Xi established numerous new commissions and leading groups that he personally chairs, including the National Security Commission and the Central Leading Group for Comprehensively Deepening Reform. These bodies allowed him to exercise direct control over policy areas previously managed through more distributed authority structures.

Xi’s anti-corruption campaign, initiated shortly after he assumed power, served dual purposes: addressing genuine corruption problems while simultaneously eliminating potential rivals and installing loyalists in key positions. The Central Commission for Discipline Inspection investigated hundreds of thousands of officials, including high-ranking military officers and party members. This campaign disciplined bureaucracies, disrupted alternative power centers, and reconfigured the power hierarchy with Xi at the apex. The military underwent comprehensive reorganization, including establishment of the Central Military Commission Chairman’s Responsibility System, which explicitly granted Xi authority to command armed forces and make decisions on major defense issues. During Xi’s tenure, the government has pursued initiatives that reflect this concentrated authority.